01- The Rise Of Nationalism In Europe

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

CHAPTER-01

 

SECTION – I    ( HISTORY)

Note: These notes are prepared by my college who is presently working with me in  I. M. I Pathan pulwama and  i am publishing his notes without giving him permission. 

 

 

 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND TERMS

1. Absolutist: A form of monarchical government centralised, militarised and repressive.
2. Utopian: A vision of society so ideal that it is unlikely or exaggereated imagination to actually exist.
3. Plebiscite: A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal
4. Suffrage: The right to vote.
5. Conservation: The political belief that society should change as little as possible.
6. Feminist: A person who supports the belief that women should have the same right and opportunities as men.
7. Ideology: System of ideas that reflects a particular social and political vision.
8. Ethnic: Connected with or belonging to a nation, race or tribe that shares a cultural tradition.
9. Allegory: When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meaning, one literal and other symbolic.
10. Statue of Liberty: It has been put in Paris, the capital of France. It personified liberty as a female figure. It has the torch of Englihtenment in one hand and Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
11. Act of Union: A document signed by authorities in England and Scotland that formed United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.
12. Authoritarianism: Favouring or enforcing strict obedience to authority, especially that of the state at the expense of personal freedom.
13. Balance of Power: A condition is which political or military strength is divided between two countries or groups of countries.
14. Blood and Iron policy: Bismarck’s policy for the unification of Germany adopted by the Prussian monarchy ignoring the Prussian Parliament.
15. Bilateral: Involving two countries came in condition of mutual support under an agreement executed.
16. Bourgeoisie: It means the middle class. It is derived from a French word meaning ‘City dwellers’.
17. Buffer State: A small country locate between two powerful states that helps keep peace between them.
18. Ceasefire: A temporary suspension of war/battle.
19. Movements: A group of people working together to advance their shred political or social idea.
20. Multiracial State: A state made of people of many races. For example, before birth of nation states several states of Europe were multi-racial states.
21. Nationalism: The sense of unity felt by people who share a common history, language and culture.
22. Pact: A formal written or oral agreement between two or more countries, individuals or parties.
23. Policy of Containment: The action or policy of preventing the expansion of a hostile country or its influence.
24. Policy of Encirclement: The policy of forming a cordon of allies around a country, pursued in international politics.
25. Protectorate: A weak country under the protection and partial control of a strong country.
26. Convention: An agreement between or among states covering particular matters, especially less formal than a treaty.
27. Federation: The action of forming states into a single group with some of central organisation.
28. Humanism: A Renaissance cultural movement which turned away from medieval scholasticism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thoughts.
29. Humanitarianism: Concerned with or seeking to promote human welfare.
30. Liberalism: The 19th century European doctrine of the middle class encouraging greater political participation and economic opportunity for members of their class.
31. Capitalism: An economic system in which a country’s businesses and industry are controlled and run for profit by private owners rather than by the government.
32. National Assembly: Renamed Estates General in France after French Revolution of 1789.
33. Romanticism: A belief focused on emotions, institutions and mystical feelings to inculcate spirit of nationalism among people.

IMPORTANT POINTS AND DATES

1. The Seven Years War between England and France 1756-63
2. Birth of Napoleon 1769
3. The French Revolution 1789
4. Jacobin Club : Organisation of common people in France who were denied political rights in the new Constitution of 1791
5. Executive of Louis XVI (Emperor of France) 1792
6. Battle of Waterloo 1815
7. Congress of Vienna (or treaty of Vienna) held after fall of Napoleon 1815
8. Death of Napoleon 1821
9. Greek struggle for independence began 1821 C.E.
10. Revolutions of the liberals in Germany, Italy and Poland Austro Hungarian Empire 1848

IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES

1. Andreas Rebmann: He was a German journalist and a member to Jacobin Club.
2. Carl Welcker: He was a famous politician in Frankfurt Parliament (Prussian/ Germany).
3. Count Camillo de Cavour: He was most popular leader, Chief Minister of Sardinia (Italy) Piedmont.
4. Duke Metternich: He was supporter of absolute monarchy and Chancellor of Austria.
5. Ernest Renan: He was a great French philosopher, who prounded essential of a nation.
6. Friedrich Wilhlem-IV: He was monarch or king of Prussia (the most powerful state of Germany).
7. Friedrich List: He was a great German economist.
8. General Von Boon: He was Chief Commander of the Prussian Army.
9. Giusepee Garibaldi: He was a great Italian nationalist and freedom fighter.
10. Giusepee Mazzini: He was a great Italian revolutionary, nationalist and freedom fighter.
11. Frederic Sorrieu : He was a French artist, in 1848, who prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world made up of democratic and social republics.

TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS (SOLVED)

1. 1. Write notes on :

(a) Giusepee Mazzini

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour

(c) The Greek War of Independence

(d) Frankfurt Parliament

(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles.

Ans. (a) Giusepee Mazzini : He was an Italian revolutionary. He born in Genoa in 1807. At a young age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He, subsequently, founded two underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty. Following his model, secret societies were set-up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland, Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic frightened the conservatives. Metternich (monarch rule of Austria) described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of existing social order.’

(b) Count Camillo de cavour: The real credit for the unification of Italy goes to Cavour, who became the chief minister of Sardinia in 1852 A. D. He took upon the responsibility for unifying the regions of Italy. He was a wealthy and educated member of the Italian elite society. Cavour engineered a diplomatic alliance with France and Sardinia – Piedmont succeeded in defeating. The Austrian forces in 1859. Before he died, he had unified the whole of Italy under Sardinia with the lone exception of the papal territories of venetia and Rome.

(c)  The Greek War of Independence : The Greek war of Independence was fought from 1820 to 1832 between Turkey and Greece. Greece had been part of the Ottaman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst The Greek which began in 1821. The Greeks got support from many  western Europeans who had sympathies for Greece, to defeat the Suttan of Turkey and forced him to sign the treaty of constantinople of 1832, recognised Greece as an independent nation.

(d) Frankfurt Parliament: In the German regions a large number of political association whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all German National Assembly, on 18 May, 1848. The 831 elected  representations marched to Frankfurt Parliament convened in the church of St. Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a Parliament. The king of Prussia refused to accept the terms offered to him by the deputies. He joined with other monarchs to oppose the elected Assembly.

 (e) The role of women in nationalist struggles: In those parts of Europe such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire-men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutional monarchy with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands  or the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles–a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of formation or joining union or association. The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. This fact was evident from Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul where women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors gallery.

2. 2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identify among the French people ?

Ans. The French revolutionaries took the following steps to create a sense of collective identify among the French people :

1. They made the ideas of the fatherland popular among the citizens. These ideals laid stress on the nation of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. They chose a new French flag, the tricolor to replace the former royal standard.
3. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and it was renamed the National Assembly.
4. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nations.
5. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
6. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
7. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
8. 3. Who were Marianne and Germania ? What was the importance of the way in which they were potrayed ?

Ans. The female allegories (symbols) were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nations. In France, she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which under lined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and The Republic-The red cap, The Tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were created in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity. Marianne image were marked on coins and stamps as well. In Germany, Germania became the allegory of The German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of Oak leaves as The German Oaks stands for heroism.

4. 4. Briefly trace the process of German unification?

Ans. 1. The German peopl6e did not exist as a united nation. In 1848, efforts were made to unify the numerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under a democratic constitution. Men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.

2. They took advantages of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles, a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
3. They tried to unite different regions of the German Confederation into a nationstate governed by an elected parliament. However, this liberal initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
4. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
5. Three wars over seven year—with Austria, Denmark and France—ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles. On 18th January 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
6. 5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Ans. Napoleon introduced several changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him.

1. He formulated the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code.
2. He abolished the privileges based on birth.
3. This law established equality before law, and also secured the right to property.
4. Napoleon shortened administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from dues and serfdom.
5. In transport and communications system various changes took place.

DISCUSS

Q.1.  Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the Liberals ? What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the Liberals ?

Ans.  A Revolution led by men and women of the Liberal middle classes, parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants, and workers in many Europe countries in the year 1848 to continued their demands for constitutionalism with national unification is known as the 1848 revolution of the Liberals.

The middle classes Liberals stood for freedom for the invidual and equality of all before the law. It empharised, politically, the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution, Liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clergical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth century liberals also claimed that men without property and all women were excluded from political rights particularly right to vote.

In economiuc sphere they stood for freedom of markets and the abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. They argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital. The stimulated nobility of economic interests lead to national unification. The serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in most of the European countries including in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.

Q.2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe?

Ans. The development of nationalism did not came only through wars and territorial expansion, culture played an important role to the rise and growth of nationalism in Europe. The following three examples show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe :

• The effect of culture in creating the idea of nationalism was set by a romantic German Philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803). He claimed it was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nationalism was popularised.
• The effect of culture in arousing national feeling was presented by a Polish writer Karol Kurpinski. He celebrated the national struggle against the partition of his country through his operas and music, turning folk dances. Which he used as national symbols roused the national feelings of the people of Poland.
• Language also played an important role in the growth of nationalism. After Russia occupation, The Polish language was forced to uproot from polish schools and offices. The polish people revolted gaint the Russian rule.Which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.

3. 3. Through a focus on any two countries, Explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century ?

Ans.  In the nineteenth century, we saw the rise of nationalism in different countries of Europe. Here we shall focus on Belgium and Poland :

• Belgium: By the settlement of Vienna, Belgium was annexed to Holland so that a powerful state could be set up in the north-east borders of France. The people of Belgium suffered untold miseries, so there was a great discontentment among them against this unnatural union between the two countries which had nothing in common. Their demand for separate constitution was refused by king willian. The July revolution of 1830 raised the spirit of the Belgians. They rose in revolt and fought for three days with the royal troops sent to suppress them and proclaimed  their independence on November 10, 1830 A. D. The Prime Minister of England, Lord Palmerston, Summoned a conference of important Europe countries in London in 1831 A. D. In this conference England, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria recognised the independence of Belgium.
• Poland: The Vienna congress divided the kingdom of Poland among Austria, Russia and Prussia. The Czar of Russia Alexander I, carved out an independent. Kingdom of Poland and himself became its ruler. Being inspired by the July Revolution of 1830, The Poles raised a standard of revolt but Russia Army smashed their movement ruthlessly. Similarly, the revolt of the Poles in 1848 A. D. was also crushed with an iron hand. The accession of Alexander II, in 1855. A. D. Aroused the hopes of the Poles, and they revolted in 1863 A. D. But, no European country came forward to help the Poles and they were badly defeated Poles never revolted again to claim their freedom.

4. 4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Ans. The history of nationalism in Britain was unlike that in the rest of Europe in the sense that it was forced down upon the masses.

1. There was no concept of a British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The region was in fact inhabited by different ethnic groups (English, Welsh, Scot, Irish). Each group had its own cultural and political tradition. However, as the English state grew in terms of wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other states of the islands.
2. The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy, played a crucial role in doing away with the ethnic distinctions and uniting the different groups into a British nation-state, with England at its centre.
3. The ethnic nationalists were, directly, or indirectly, forced to join the English state to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain. The symbols of new Britain— the British flag, the national anthem and the English language were widely popularised, while the distinctive identities of the other joining states were systematically suppressed.
4. English culture dominated the British nation, while the other states became mere subsidiaries in the Union.
5. Thus, nationalism in Britain did not come about as a result of the people’s desire to unite or country wide movements for the same, but from the decisions of the people in power.
6. 5. Why did nationalist tension emerge in the Balkans?

Ans.  The causes which emerge nationalist tensions in the Balkans were :

• The majority of the people of the Balkans states were christians. The muslims who were ruling class oppressed them in many ways.
• By the beginning of the 19th century, The Turkish Empire became very weak and came to be known as the ‘Sickman of Europe’. This encourage the Balkans to regain their independence.
• The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans encouraged the people of these state to claim for independence or political rights on nationality. They had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.
• There was a clash of interests among the big powers of Europe, over the trade and colonies (territories) in the Balkans, Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungry were all interested in extending their control over The Balkan areas and simultaneously keep the others out. These rivalries led to a number of wars finally leading to the First world war (1914-1919)

ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH THEIR ANSWERS

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. Discuss in detail the difference between revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

Ans. Following were the difference between revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

1. Unlike the revolutions of 1830 the revolutions of 1848 were marked by two different kinds of popular insurrections. Those in France, Switzerland and disturbances in Britain and Belgium were democratic protests borne out of political frustrations, due to the inadequacies and exclusiveness of middle class governments. They demanded social and democratic reforms.
2. Most of the revolutions in Italy, Germany, Austria and Hungary were nationalistic and popular insurrections against foreign rules. They were against the repressive policy of Metternich and his allies which kept aspirations for national unification and constitutionalism at bay.
3. In 1848, unlike 1830 there were two storm centres namely, France and Italy and the greater was that of Italy than France.
4. Another distinguishing factor is the list of countries which escaped the 1848 revolution. In Britain and Belgium there were disturbances, the revolution did not occur in Poland and Russia. The Revolution was pre-eminently central European events. They happened in territories of Germany, Switzerland and Italy and peasant countries of the Balkans.
5. The revolutions of 1848 were in origin and impetus the work of towns g., in London and Birmingham, Paris and Brussels, Rome and Berlin, Vienna and Budapest. Leadership came from intellectuals, university professors and students, journalists and poets.
6. 2. Briefly trace the process of Italian unification.

Ans. By 1871, Italy’s political unification was complete. The mantle of Italian unification fell on King of Sardinia I Piedmont and its chief architect was Cavour, the chief minister of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont. Italian Unification was a result of diplomatic alliances and series of diplomatic moves, military events. The north under Austrian Habsburg was acquired by Cavour through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and by defeat of Austrian forces in 1859.

Guiseppe Garibaldi with armed volunteers acquired the southern kingdom of Italy and Sicilies by driving out the Spanish rulers in the famous expedition of the Thousand of South Italy. In 1861, only Venetia and the Papal city of Rome remained unincorporated. These were added in 1866 and 1870 as a result Bismarck’s defeats of Austria and France. Guiseppe Mazzini, founder of secret society of called ‘Young Italy’ sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. Homogeneity of language, strong nationalist cultural movements, growth of rail roads and possibility of economic development and political dominance all were factors which prepared the ground for Italian unification prior to it becoming a reality.

3. 3. Discuss the factors which led to the growth of nationalism in nineteenth century in Europe.

Ans. Followings were the factors which led to the growth of nationalism in nineteenth century in Europe :

1. Romanticism : Romanticism as a cultural movement focused on involving and mystical feelings instead of reason and science to develop nationalist sentiment. They helped create a sense of collective heritage and cultural past as part of nation building through use of folk songs, dances, music and folklore.
2. Vernacular Language and Music : Emphasis on vernacular language and music helped keep alive nationalist feeling and carry the modern nationalist message to large audience who were mostly illiterates for example, in Poland Karl Kurpunski celebrated the national struggle through his opera and music.
3. New Social Class : Growth of new social groups belonging to the educated middle class, constituting professors, school, teachers, clerks and businessman. It was this class which belonged to liberal nationalist thinking and led the revolutions.
4. Printing Press : With the print revolution, a new reading public emerged. The hearing and reading public become intermingled. It enabled wide circulation of ideas of enlightened thinkers and introduced, a new world of debate and discussion on tradition and despotism. It opened up the possibility of thinking differently and moved people to action.
5. Economic Hardships : Enormous increase in population, unemployment aggravated by migrant population from rural areas, imports of cheap machine made goods from England, peasant misery due to feudal dues, food shortages, rise in food prices, all added to the frustrations, and revolutionary thinking.
6. 4. Discuss the details the role of Culture in creating the idea of nation in Europe.

Ans. Followings points proved the role of culture in creating the idea of nation in Europe :

1. Art and poetry, stories and music, helped express and shape nationalistic feelings.
2. Romanticism, a cultural movement focused on emotions, intuitions and mystical feelings. Eugene Delocroix (Romanitc Artists) through his painting “The massacre at Chios” sought to appeal to the emotions of spectators and create sympathy for the Greeks. By highlighting the shared past, collective heritage and cultural past, romanticism sought to develop a form of nationalist sentiments.
3. Folk songs and folk poetry, folk dances, the true spirit of nationalism was popularised. Example : Karl Kurpunski of Poland turned folk dances likes Polonaise and Mazurka through his operas into nationalist symbols.
4. Vernacular language and folklore ancient national spirit was revived and modern nationalist message spread among large audiences.
5. 5. Great Britain was the model of nation, argued by some scholars. Justify the view?

Ans. Following points justify the views of those scholars who argued that Great Britain was the model of nation or nation state:

1. Unlike in Germany and Italy or France, formation of nation-state in Britain was not an outcome of any revolution.
2. Before 18th century, no British nation-state existed. The British nation was the result of a long and gradual political, cultural and economic processes.
3. The Parliament in Britain obtained power from the monarch in a long-run ideological conflict and Britain emerged as a nation-state.
4. A new and enlarged British nation was forged by propagating English culture in the nearby state. Ireland and Scotland were the examples.
5. 6. Discuss how Balkan region become a source of nationalist tension in Europe a after 1871.

Ans. Following points show how Balkan region become a source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 :

1. Balkans were a region of geographical and ethical variations comprising modern by Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were known as Slavs.
2. A large part of the Balkans were under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
3. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkan together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
4. Slavic nationalists struggled to define their identify and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
5. The Balkan states were jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of each other. Balkans also became an area of big power library.
6. Each European power such as Russian, Germany, England, Austria-Hungary was keen countering the hold of other powers over Balkans and this led to a series of wars eventually the First World War.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. What were the immediate results of the July 1830 revolution?

Ans. Followings were the immediate results of the July 1830 revolution :

1. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power by the Congress of Vienna were overthrown by the revolutionaries and constitutional monarchy established with Louis Phillipe as its head.
2. It sparked on uprising in Brussels which led Belgium to break away from the United Kingdom of Netherlands.
3. 2. How did France benefit from the Revolution?

Ans. France benefitted from the revolution in the following ways:

1. France became a republic,
2. All adult males were given right to vote,
3. Right to work was guaranteed to all.

Q.3. Differentiate between modern state and nation state in Europe?

Ans. Modern State had been developing in Europe for a long period before nineteenth century. In modern state centralised power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory.

On the other hand, nation states came into being through diverse processes in nineteenth century Europe. e.g., Germany, Italy, Nation states are one in which the majority of its citizens and its rulers come to develop a sense of common identify and share history of descent. This commonness is forged through such as struggles, endeavour of leaders and common people, sacrifice and devotion.

4. 4. Explain any three measures introduced by the French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identify amongst the French People.

Ans. Followings were the three measures introduced by the French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identify amongst the French People :

1. To replace the old royal standards, a new tricolor national flag was chosen. This tricolor was a symbol of revolution.
2. To make uniform (equal) law for all citizens, a centralized administrative system was introduced.
3. The regional languages were considered an obstacle in the way of nationalism. So, these were discouraged and ‘French” was promoted as common spoken and written language.
4. 5. Discuss in brief the reforms introduced by Napoleon in France.

Ans. Following were the reforms introduced by Napoleon in France:

1. Napoleonic Code was introduced in 1804 which ended the privileges based on birth. It established equality before law and secured the right to property.
2. The administrative divisions were simplified. Feudal system was ended. Peasants were freed from paying dues to the serfs and manors.
3. The guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.
4. Introduction of uniform law, standardised weights and measures and common national currency helped the growth of trade and traders a lot.
5. 6. Discuss the political, social and economic grounds for the rise of liberal nationalism.

Ans. Following were the grounds for the rise of liberal nationalism :

Political ideas :

1. They supported the end of aristocracy and clerical privileges.
2. They voiced for a constitutional and representative government through parliament.
3. They did not stand for universal suffrage.

Social ideas :

1. They supported freedom for the individual.
2. They supported the idea of equality of all before law.

Economic ideas:

1. Freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
2. Zollverein abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies.
3. 7. Write down the features of the Treaty of Vienna, 1815.

Ans. Following were the features of Treaty of Vienna.

1. The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power.
2. The kingdom of Netherlands was set up in the north.
3. Geneva was added to Piedmont in the south.
4. Prussia was given important new territories.
5. Austria was given the control of Northern Italy.
6. Russia was given part of Poland.
7. 8. How did the growth of industrilisation change the social and political equations of Europe ?

Ans. Followings were the changes taken place due to growth of industrialisation :

1. Western and Central parts of Europe saw emergence of towns and cities, strong commercial class, whose existence was based on the production for the market.
2. Emergence of working class and a new middle class comprising of industrialists, businessmen and professionals.
3. Among the educated liberal middle class, the ideas of national unity and abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

Q.9. Describe briefly flow of goods, capital and people in international economic exchange during 1815-1914.

Ans. Flow of goods : restricted to garments and clothes but spurt seen in raw materials like silk, cotton, etc. from India to Great Britain.

Flow of capital: It existed in the flow of goods mentioned above.

Flow of people: Developed countries restricted it but it was frequent, first as slave trade and then in the form of indentured labour.

Q.10. Culture play an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe ?

Ans. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe by following ways :

1. In Poland, Polish language was banned in schools. In reaction to it, Polish became the language of gatherings in Church. The use of Polish became a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance in Europe.
2. Grimm brothers collected a number of folk tales and made them a weapon against the French domination of Germany.
3. National feelings were kept alive through music in Poland.
4. 11. Discuss the contribution of educated middle class in the liberal movement in Europe.

Ans. Followings were the contribution of educated middle class in the liberal movement in Europe :

1. In France, the middle class, which consisted of professionals, businessmen and rich artisans, fought to abolish monarch and establish a republic based on universal male suffrage.
2. In other countries like Germany, Italy, Poland and Austrian empire, these people struggled for constitutionalism and national unification.
3. They demanded freedom of press and freedom of forming associations.
4. In Germany, the middle class was successful in holding Frankfurt Parliament, where they drafted a Constitution and made monarchy subject to Parliament.
5. 12. Discuss the impact of liberal movements on conservative forces in Europe in 1848.

Ans. Following were the impact of liberal movements on conservative forces in Europe in 1848.

1. The conservative forces became weak and could not restore the old order.
2. They realised that these movements can be ended only by granting some concessions to the liberal nationalist revolutionaries.
3. The conservatives abolished serfdom and bonded labour in Habsburg and Russia.
4. Hungarians were granted more autonomy by the Habsburg rulers.

Q.13. Describe briefly the reasons for the nationalistic upsurge in the 19^th century Europe.

Ans. Following were the reasons for the nationalistic upsurge in the 19th century Europe :

1. Oppression of the people under absolute rulers.
2. Liberal ideas spread by well-known philosophers and leaders.
3. Role of educated middle class.
4. With the outbreak of revolutionary wars, the French army and its soldiers began to carry the idea or nationalism abroad.
5. 14. What were the features of the class of landed aristocracy of Europe.

Ans. Following were the features of landed aristocracy of Europe:

1. The members of landed aristocracy followed a common year of life. This helped them in their unity.
2. They owned estates both in the rural and town areas. In other words, they owned majority of land tracts.
3. They spoke French. This helped them in diplomacy. This also helped them to have a distinct place in high society.
4. They were socially more united as they had marriage relations among their families.

Q.15. Was it true, that there was no nation states in Europe in mid-eighteenth century?

Ans. There were no ‘nation states’ in mid-eighteenth century Europe :

1. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms.
2. Eastern and central Europe were territorial kingdoms under autocratic monarchies.
3. The Habsburg Empire was a patch work of different regions and people. The people of those territorial states did not share a common identify or common culture.
4. 16. How did revolutionary ideas of French Revolution and to other countries ?

Ans. French revolutionaries clearly stated it was their mission to liberate not only the French people but also people of all parts of Europe from despotism. With the outbreak of French revolutionary wars, the French armies carried the ideas of nationalism. When Napoleon conquered large areas indirectly contributed to creating a feeling of oneness by his uniform administrative system and civil code. He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from bondage.

17. 17. What were the social and political changes took place in Europe after Industrial Revolution?

Ans. Industrial Revolution brought following social and political changes in Europe:

1. It resulted in the emergence of a working class population and a prosperous new middle class comprising of industrialists businessmen and professionals.
2. It was the new middle-class educated, prosperous and liberal-which resented the aristocratic privileges and among whom the liberal ideas grew.
3. In western and central parts of Europe a strong commercial class was emerged, it also witnessed rapid growth leading to growth of towns and cities.
4. Politically they emphasised representative government based on consent of the citizens and governance by constitution.
5. In economic sphere they opposed restrictions by state and advocated freedom of markets.

Q.18. Write down the features of new conservatism after 1815?

Ans. Followings were the features of new conservatism after 1815 :

1. They believed the established traditional institutions of state and society like monarchy, church, social hierarchies, private property and family should be preserved.
2. The realised modernisation initiated by Napoleon could be used to make state power more effective and strong.
3. Efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy and abolition of feudalism could strengthen autocratic monarchies of Europe.
4. They did not tolerate criticism or dissent and sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
5. 19. Write down the provisions of the Treaty of Vienna.

Ans. The Treaty of Vienna was signed in 1815, representatives of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, powers which had collectively defeated Napoleon and France.

1. Treaty restored the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and created a new conservative order in Europe, g., Bourbon dynasty in France.
2. France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
3. A series of strong states were set up on the boundaries of France, to contain it and prevent French expansion in future, g., Kingdom of Netherlands which included Belgium, was set up in the north, and Genoa added to Piedmont in the south.
4. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
5. In the East, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of saxony.
6. It sought to maintain a balance of power in Europe so as to prevent anyone power from demanding too large an area in Europe.
7. 20. How did nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerge?

Ans. The nationalism and the idea of nation-state emerged among the culturally diverse and regional-social groups of the European continent. Due to industrialisation, the new middle class emerged. It comprised of labour, workingclass population, industrialists, businessmen, professionals, etc.

The educated and liberal population among the middle class thought of uniting the culturally compatible sections of European society. Hence, they through of nationalism and this led to the emergence of the idea of nation-state.

21. 21. Write down the two main political, social and economic consequencesof 1848 revolution ?

Ans. Followings were the main political, social and economic consequences of 1848 revolution :

1. The abdication of the monarch Louis Phillipe and France proclaimed a republic based on universal male suffrage.
2. In Europe it marked the end of the rule of Metternich and secured the overthrow of his ‘system’ which had prevailed since 1815.
3. It destroy feudalism. Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished, both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
4. More autonomy was granted by the Habsburg rulers to the Hungarians in 1867.
5. 22. What is the map celebrating ? Give reasons. Do you think, it is, a true representation of the British Empire. Give reasons.

Ans. The map in celebrating “The British Empire”. Britannia the symbol of the British nation is triumphantly sitting on the globe and the angels holding the banner of freedom are blessing Britannia. The colonies are represented through the images of tiger, elephants, forests and primitive people. No, the depiction is not a true, representation. It is a very one sided, imperialistic view. The banner of freedom stressed on freedom is that of the British people only, not that of the subjects of the colonies.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What did the French revolutionaries consider as the mission and the destiny of the French nation ?

Ans. The French revolutionaries considered it as the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism. In other words, to help other people of Europe to become nations.

2. 2. Which things outweighed the advantages of the administrative changes brought about any Napoleon ?

Ans. The things which outweighed the advantages of the administrative changes brought about by Napoleon were increased taxation, censorship and forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe.

Q.3. How was the aristocracy organised in Europe in the 19th century?

Ans. In Europe, the members of the aristocracy were united by a common way of life that cuts across regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also townhouses. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. However, they were numerically a small group.

Q.4. What was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes during the nineteenth century ?

Ans. Freedom of markets and the abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital was a strong demand of the emerging middle class during the nineteenth century.

5. 5. When did the first upheaval take place in France and with what result ?

Ans. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. As a result of this upheaval the Bourbon kings were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries and a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its head was installed.

6. 6. What did Friedrich William IV, king of Prussia do when he was offered a crown subject to a parliament?

Ans. When Friedrich William IV, king of Prussia, was offered a crown subject to a parliament, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.

Q.7. What is Liberalism?

Ans. The world liberalism, has been derived from the Latin word ‘Liber’ which means ‘free’. So the meaning of liberalism is the representative government through parliament and the end of autocracy and certain privileges of clerics.

Q.8. Which important change came in France with the Revolution of 1830.

Ans. The important change that came in France with the revolution of 1830 was that the power of the Bourbon King was over thrown by revolutionaries and France came under the constitutional monarchy of Louis Philippe.

Q.9. What was the result of the Revolution of France of 1848 ?

Ans. The two main results of the revolution of France of 1848 was that Louis Phillipe was thrown out of power by liberal middle class and a republic based on universal male suffrage was established over there.

Q.10. When was Ireland and United Kingdom united and what was its impact ?

Ans. Ireland and United Kingdom were united in 1800 A.D. and Great Britain came into being. With Great Britain, its new symbols like language, flag, national anthem etc. also came forward.

Q.11. Who was Frederic Sorrieu?

Ans. Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist who prepared a series of four points in 1848. His four points visualised a dream of that world which is made up of social republics and democratic countries.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

 

1. In which century did nationalism emerge in Europe ?

(a) 16th Century                                (b) 20th Century

(c) 19th Century                                (d) 17th Century.

Ans. (c) 19th Century.

2. When did the French revolution take place in France ?

(a) 1789 A.D.                                      (b) 1799 A.D.

(c) 1792 A.D.                                      (d) 1795 A.D.

Ans. (a) 1789 A.D.

3. Who was the king of France at the time of French revolution ?

(a) Marie Antoinette                            (b) Louis XVI

(c) Czar Nicholas                                 (d) Edward II

Ans. (b) Louis XVI.

4. Who was defeated by the combined forces of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1815 at Waterloo ?

(a) Louis XVI                                      (b) Edward II

(c) Czar Nicolas                                   (d) Napoleon

Ans. (b) Edward II

5. When did the Treaty of Vienna take place ?

(a) 1815 A.D.                                      (b) 1828 A.D.

(c) 1820 A.D.                                      (d) 1819 A.D.

Ans. (a) 1815 A.D.

6. Who among these, was responsible for the Unification of Italy ?

(a) Mazzini                                          (b) Cavour

(c) Garibaldi                                        (d) All of these.

Ans. (d) All of these.

7. When did the German unification take place ?

(a) 1869 A.D.                                      (b) 1871 A.D.

(c) 1873 A.D.                                      (d) 1875 A.D.

Ans. (b) 1871 A.D.

8. Who was declared as the German emperor after the unification of Germany ?

(a) Kaiser William I                             (b) Czar Nicolas

(c) Louis XVI                                      (d) Napoleon

Ans. (a) Kaiser William I.

9. In which year did the revolution of liberals take place ?

(a) 1849 A.D.                                      (b) 1830 A.D.

(c) 1789 A.D.                                      (d) 1848 A.D.

Ans. (d) 1848 A.D.

10. Who played the most important role in the unification of Germany ?

(a) Kaiser William I                             (b) Czar Nicolas

(c) Otto Von Bismarck                                     (d) Napoleon II.

Ans. (c) Otto Von Bismarck.

11. When was the Act of Union passed between England and Scotland, which

resulted in the formation of ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ ?

(a) 1709 A.D.                                      (b) 1707 A.D.

(c) 1708 A.D.                                      (d) 1710 A.D.

Ans. (b) 1707 A.D.

12. Who took charge the France after the French Revolution ?

(a) National Assembly                         (b) Napoleon

(c) Louis XVI                                      (d) Estate General

Ans. (a) National Assembly.

13. Which one of these underground societies was formed by Giuseppe Mazzini ?

(a) Young Germany                             (b) Young Italy

(c) Young Asia                                                (d) Young World

Ans. (b) Young Italy.

14. Who among these, played a great role in the French revolution ?

(a) Voltaire                                          (b) Rousseau

(c) Montesquieu                                   (d) All of these

Ans. (d) All of these.

15. When did the Slav nationalist gather forces in the Habsburg and Ottoman

Empire ?

(a) 1905 A.D.                                      (b) 1907 A.D.

(c) 1909 A.D.                                      (d) 1911 A.D.

Ans. (a) 1905 A.D.

16. When did the Greek revolution for independence began ?

(a) 1819 A.D.                                      (b) 1821 A.D.

(c) 1823 A.D.                                      (d) 1825 A.D.

Ans. (b) 1821 A.D.

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