04 Metals And Non- Metals

There are 118 elements known at present and these elements are generally classified into metals and non-metals based on their properties.
Physical properties of Metals:
1. Malleability: The property of a substance due to which it can be beaten into thin sheets is called malleability. Metals are generally malleable. E.g. Gold and silver are best malleable substances.
2. Ductility: The Property of a substance by which it can be drawn into thin wires is called ductility. Metals are ductile i.e. on beating these can be drawn into thin wires. E.g. gold is more ductile as 1 gram of gold can be drawn into a thin wire of 2 km long.
3. Conduction of heat: Metals are good conductors of heat. Silver and copper are best conductors while lead and mercury are the poor conductors of heat.
4. Conduction of electricity: Metals are good conductors of electricity. E.g. silver is the best conductor of electricity.
5. Shining Surface: Metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface also called metallic lustre. E.g. gold, silver and copper are shiny metals and can be polished.
6. Hardness: Metals are generally hard with the exceptions of sodium and potassium that can be cut by knife.
7. Density: Metals have high density except sodium and potassium.
8. Melting and boiling points: Generally metals have melting and boiling points except for sodium, potassium, mercury, cesium, gallium.
9. State at room temperature: Metals are generally solid at room temperature with an exception of mercury which is liquid.
10. Sonority: Property of producing sound on striking a hard surface. Metals are sonorous i.e. they produce sound on striking.
Physical properties Non-Metals:
1. Non metals are not malleable i.e. these can not be drawn into sheets. E.g. Sulphur and phosphorus are not malleable.
2. Non metals are not ductile but are brittle ( i.e. they break easily on hammering) E.g. Sulphur and phosphorus are brittle.
3. Non metals are bad conductors of heat. E.g. Sulphur and phosphorus are bad conductors of heat.
4. Non metals are bad conductors of electricity except carbon in the form of graphite which is a good conductor of electricity.
5. Non-metals are generally non-lustrous with an exception of iodine.
6. Non metals are generally soft except diamond which is the hardest known substance.
7. Non metals have low densities i.e. they are light.
8. Non metals have low melting and boiling points except diamond (m.p = 3500 C0 )
9. Non-metals are present in all three states, solids, liquids and gaseous, at room temperature.
10. Non metals do not produce sound on striking.

Exceptions in Physical Properties of metals and non metals:
1. Graphite, a non-metal, is a good conductor of electricity.
2. Iodine is a lustrous non-metal.
3. Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, which is a non-metal is the hardest substance while sodium and potassium, being metals are soft enough to be cut by knife.
4. Mercury, which is a metal, is liquid at room temperature while rest are solids.
5. Sodium, potassium, mercury, cesium and gallium are metals with low melting and boiling points.
6. Diamond is the non-metal with high melting and boiling points.
7. Sodium, potassium and lithium are metals with low density.
Chemical properties of Metals:
1. Reaction with oxygen:
• Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.
Metal + Oxygen -> Metal oxide
e.g. 2Cu + O2 -> 2CuO
• Metal oxides are basic in nature. Some metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, etc., which react with both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known as amphoteric oxides.
e.g. Al2O3 + 6HCl -> 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
Al2O3 + 2NaOH -> 2NaAlO2 + H2O
• Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but some dissolve to form alkalis like sodium and potassium oxides.
• Metals such as potassium and sodium react so vigorously with oxygen that they catch fire if kept in the open. So to protect them they are kept immersed in kerosene oil.
e.g. Na2O (s) + H2O (l) -> 2NaOH (aq)
2. Reaction with water:
• All metals do not react with water but only those metals which are above the hydrogen in the reactivity series reacts with water or steam. Those which react form metal oxide (or metal hydroxide) and hydrogen gas.
a. When a metal reacts with water, then metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas are formed.
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH (aq.) + H2(g) + heat energy

b. When a metal reacts with steam, then metal oxide and hydrogen gas are formed
Metal + Steam → Metal oxide + Hydrogen gas
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
3. Reaction with Dilute Acid:
• Most metals react with dilute acids to give a metal salt and hydrogen gas. All metals however do not react with dilute acids.
Metal + Dilute acid → Salt + Hydrogen
e.g. Sodium metal reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid acid to form sodium chloride (Salt) and hydrogen.
2Na (S) + 2 HCl (aq.)  -> 2 NaCl (aq.) + H2 (g)

Similarly Magnesium metal reacts rapidly with dilute hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.

2Mg (S) + 2 HCl (aq.)  -> 2 MgCl (aq.) + H2 (g)4. 4. Reaction of metals with metal salts: A more reactive metal displaces less reactive metal from their compounds in solution or molten form.
e.g. In the reaction between zinc and copper sulphate solution, zinc which is more reactive displaces the less reactive copper from the copper sulphate solution as:

CuSO4 (aq.) + Zn (s)  -> ZnSO4 (aq.) + Cu (s)

Aqua-Regia: A freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1 is known as aqua-regia. It is a highly corrosive and fuming liquid which can dissolve all metals even gold and platinum.
Reactivity of metals / Reactivity Series of Metals: The arrangement of metals in a vertical column in the order of decreasing reactivities is called reactivity series of metals. In reactivity series, the most reactive metal is placed at the top of the column while as the least reactive metal is placed at the bottom of it.
The reactivity series of metals is shown as:

 

 

Ionic Compounds And their properties:
Ionic Compounds: The compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are known as ionic compounds or electrovalent compounds. E.g. Sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl), Magnesium oxide MgO)
Properties of ionic compound:
1. Ionic compounds are usually crystalline solids. E.g. Sodium chloride is a crystalline solid.
2. They have high melting and boiling points. E.g. Melting and boiling points of Sodium chloride are 800 0C and 1413 0C respectively.
3. They are generally soluble in water but insoluble in solvents such as kerosene, petrol, etc.
4. Conduction of electricity:
• Conducts electricity through solution due to involvement of charged particles (ions).
• As movement of ions is not possible in solid state, due to rigid structure, do not conduct electricity.
• In molten state this movement is overcome due to heat and thus conducts electricity.

 

Occurrence of Metals: The major source of metals is Earths crust. Sea water also contains salts of metals like sodium chloride, magnesium chloride etc. The natural substances in which the metals or their compounds are found in earth are called minerals but all minerals are not used for the extraction of metals. Those minerals from which the metals can be extracted conveniently and profitably are called ores.
Obtaining (Extraction of ) Metal from an ore: Different techniques are used for obtaining the metals form an ore on the basis of their reactivity.
1. Enrichment of ore: An ore is an impure compound containing large amount of sand and rocky material. These unwanted substances present in an ore are called gangue. Before extracting the metal from an ore, it is necessary to remove these impurities by using different methods depending upon the physical or chemical properties.

2. Extraction of Metal: To extract metals from an enriched ore, all the metals are grouped into following three categories:

a. Metals of low reactivity
b. Metals of medium reactivity
c. Metals of high reactivity.

a. Metals low reactivity: These metals are generally very unreactive. Oxides of these can be reduced to metals by heating alone.
e.g. Mercury is a less reactive metal and can be extracted from its sulphide ore known as mercury II sulphide or Cinnabar ore just by heating alone as;

2HgS(s) + 3O2 (g) + Heat → 2HgO(s) + 2SO2 (g)
b. Metals of middle reactivity: These metals are present in the middle of the reactivity series and extracted by the process of calcination or Roasting.
• Calcination: The process of converting carbonate ores into metal oxides by heating strongly in absence of air is called the calcinations.
e.g. when zinc carbonate (or calamine)is strongly heated in the absence of air, zinc oxide and carbon dioxide is formed.
ZnCO3 (s) Calcination ZnO(s) + CO2 (g)
• Roasting: The process of converting sulphide ores into metal oxides by heating strongly in the presence of air is called roasting
e.g. When zinc sulphide ore is strongly heated in the presence of oxygen, then zinc oxide and sulphur dioxide is formed.

2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) Roasting 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2 (g)
• The metal oxides obtained from calcinations or roasting are then converted to free metal by using reducing agents like carbon , sodium, calcium or aluminium as:
ZnO (s) + C (s) Zn (s) + CO (g)

Thermite Reaction: The reduction of metal oxide by using aluminium powder as a reducing agent is known as thermite reaction.
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) 2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s) + Heat
c. Metals of high Reactivity: Since these are very reactive metals and thus cannot be obtained by displacement reactions. These metals are obtained by electrolytic refining.
They are generally obtained by electrolysis of their molten chlorides or oxides. Metals are deposited at cathode (negatively charged), while chlorine or oxygen is liberated at anode (positively charged).
e.g. Sodium metal is extracted by the electrolytic reduction (electrolysis) of molten sodium chloride as:
2NaCl (l)  -> 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g)

Refining Of Metals:

The process of purifying impure metals is known as refining of metals. The most important and widely used method for purification of metals is electrolytic refining.
Electrolytic Refining:
Electrolytic refining means refining by electrolysis. To refine a metal by electrolysis, we need:
 At Anode – Impure Metal
 At Cathode – Pure Metal
 Electrolyte – Solution of the metal salt (of the metal to be refined)
• At Anode: Pure metal from anode dissolve into electrolyte.
• At Cathode: An equivalent amount of pure metal from electrolyte is deposited at cathode.
• Soluble impurities go into solution; insoluble impurities settle at the bottom of anode called as anode mud.
 Electrolytic Refining of Copper: The apparatus used for the electrolytic refining of copper is shown in figure as:

 

It consists of an electrolytic tank containing acidified copper sulphate solution as electrolyte. A thick bloc impure copper metal is made anode and thin strip of pure metal is made cathode. When electric current is passed, then impure copper from the anode dissolves and goes into copper sulphate solution and then gets deposited on cathode. Hence, pure copper metal is produced on the cathode.
Corrosion of metals: The eating up of metal by the action of gases, moisture or acids present in air is called corrosion of metals. The corrosion of iron metal is called rusting.
When an iron object is kept for some time in damp, it gets covered with red-brown flaky substance called rust. This is called rusting of iron. Rust is mainly hydrated iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3xH2O ).

Conditions necessary for Rusting of Iron: The only conditions for rusting of iron are presence of air and presence of water.

Prevention of Rusting of Iron: Some common methods of preventing corrosion of iron are as:
I. By Painting: the most common method of preventing rusting of iron to coat its surface with a paint.
II. By applying grease or oil: When grease or oil is applied to the surface of an iron object, then air and moisture cannot come in contact with it and hence rusting is prevented.
III. By Galvanization: The process of depositing a thin layer of zinc metal on iron objects is called galvanization. Galvanization also prevents rusting of iron.
IV. By Tin or Chromium plating: When a thin layer of tin and chromium is deposited on iron objects by electroplating, then the iron is prevented from rusting.
V. By Alloying: When iron is alloyed with nickel and chromium, then stainless steel is obtained which does not rust at all.

04 – The Age Of Industries

04. The Age  Of Industries            History-10th

TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS (SOLVED)
Write in brief :
Q. 1. Explain the following:
(a) Woman workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.
(b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villagers.
(c) The part of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century.
(d) The East India company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.
Ans. (a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny: The Spinning Jenny machine speeded up the Spinning process and reduced labour demands. By the use of this machine, a single worker could make a number of spindles and spin several threads at a time. It simply meant that as a result of this machine, many weavers would be left without any job and became unemployed. It was this fear of unemployment which made women workers, who survived on hand Spinning, began attacking the Spinning Jenny.
(b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villagers: In the seventeenth century, merchants from the towns in Europe began moving to the countryside. The European merchants had to face many problems in setting up their industries in the towns. So they set up their business in the countryside and began employing peasants and artisans within the villagers. In the countryside, the poor peasants and artisans were ready to work for the merchants, because with the loss of the open lands, as a result of the Enclosure Movement. They were left with no alternative source of Income to survive.
(c) The Port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century: The Port of Surat on the west coast of India was the major Port to handle the Indian trade with the west before the age of machines. It linked India to the Gulf and the Red Sea Ports. But towards the end of the eighteenth century, various Europeans companies, especially the East India company monopolised much of the Indian trade. They set up and patronized their own Ports like Bombay Port situated on the west coast of India. All this resulted in the decline of old Ports like Surat. The exports from this Port fell dramatically. According to an estimat the gross value of trade that passed through Surat in the last years of the Seventeenth century had been Rs. 16 million. But by 1740s. It slumped to 3 million rupees .
(d) The East India company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India: The Gomasthas were agents of the East India company who helped the company to establish control over the Indian trade. In order to establish its monopoly on Indian trade and direct control over the weavers, it decided to eliminate the existing traders and brokers. With this aim in view, the East India company appointed paid servants called gomasthas, whose main duties were to advance loans to different weavers, get all their production, examine the quality of goods and collect supplies.
Q. 2. Write True or False against each statement:
(a) At the end of the nineteenth century, 80 present of the total work force in Europe was employed in the
(b) The International market for fine textiles was dominated by India till the eighteenth century.
(c) The American civil war resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from India.
(d) The introduction of the fly shuttle enabled handloom workers to improve their productively.
Ans. (a) False, (b) True, (c) False, (d) True.
Q. 3. Explain what meant by Proto-industrialisation ?
Ans. Proto-industrialisation means the existence of industries before the factory system, even before the existence of industrial production for the international market. This production was not based on factories. Such a phase of industrialisation before the appearance of factories is referred to as Proto-industrialisation. This Proto-industrialisation was a part of a network of commercial exchanges.
DISCUSS
Q. 1. Why did some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?
Ans. The industrialists in nineteenth century Europe prefer hand labour over machines due to following reasons:
(i) In Victorian Britain, there was no shortage of human labour. Poor peasants and villagers moved to the cities in large numbers in search of jobs.
(ii) They did not want to introduce machines because such a thing required large capital investments .
(iii) The demand in the market for intricate designs and specific shapes of goods could be produced only with hand labour.
(iv) In Victorians Britain, the upper classes – The aristocrats and the bourgeoise preferred things produced by hand.
(v) The handmade products came to be symbolise refinement and class. They were better finished, individually produced and carefully designed machine made goods were for export to the colonies.
(vi) In all such industries where production fluctuated with the season like Gas works, braveries, bookbinders Etc., industrialists usually preferred hand labour, employing workers for the season.
Q. 2. How did the East India company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian weavers?
Ans. After established its foothold in Indian trade East India Company developed a system of management and control that would eliminate competition and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian weavers. Inorder to establish to establish a direct control over the weavers, it decide to eliminate the existing traders and brokers, with this aim in view East India company appointed paid servants, called Gomasthas. Who main duties were to advance loans to different weaves, get all their production, examine the quality of goods and collect regular supplies to the company. These Gomasthas also prevented weavers from dealing with other buyer through the system of advances. These Gomasthas were outsiders and their treatment with weavers was very harsh, so many weavers deserted their villagers and set up their looms elsewhere.
Q. 3. Why did Industrial production in India increase during the First World War?
Ans. The First World War dramatically changed the situation of the industrial production in India. With the beginning of the First World War, almost all the British mills became busy with War production to meet the needs of the army. As such all types of imports from England into India declined. Hence the Indian industry got a golden opportunity to flourish and manufacture all types of things for the home market. As a War prolonged, Indian factories were called up on to supply War needs like Jute bags, cloth for uniforms of army, tents and leather shoes and even horse and mule Saddles. As a result many new factories were set up and more workers were employed. Over the War years industrial production in India boomed. After the War, Manchester and other products of England could never recapture its old position in the Indian market.
ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH THEIR ANSWERS
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q. 1. Why Industrial Revolution Started First of all in England?
OR
Explain the factors responsible for the industrial Revolution in England ?
Ans. The Industrial Revolution began in England in the later half of the 18th century as favourable factors for such a development were as:
(1) Men like Walpole, who was a great economist, encouraged the foreign trade which brought more and more wealth to England. The British traders to establish new factories and mills.
(2) England had plenty of natural resources like iron and coal which are essential for industries.
(3) England had established many new colonies from where they could easily best markets for finished goods.
(4) England had developed a large shipping industry which solved their problems of transporting things to distant lands.
(5) The people of England, who were Quite enterprising and energetic also deserved for credit, for they worked hard and were ready to take risks.
Q. 2. What were the inventions in the textile industry in England as a result of the industrial Revolution?
Ans. The inventions in the textile industry in England as a result of the industrial Revolution are as:
(1) Hargreaves invented The ‘Spinning Jenny’ in 1764 A.D, which speeded up the spinning work.
(2) A little later John Key invented the ‘Fly Shuttle’ which speeded up weaving.
(3) In 1769 A.D, Arkwright improved Hargreave’s invention and adopted it in such a way that it could run by water–power. He called his new machine as ‘Water Frame’.
(4) Sometimes later in 1776 A.D, crompton invented a new machine called the ‘Mule’ which combined the advantages of both the machines invented by Hargreaves and Arkwright.
(5) In 1785 A.D, cartwright invented the ‘Powerloom’ which used steam power for spinning and weaving.
(6) Though machines had been invented for weaving and spinning. Yet the problems of separating seeds from fibres was very troublesome. It was also solved when an American inventor, Eli Whitney invented the ‘Cotton Jin’ in 1793 A.D. The machine could separate seeds from cotton 300 times faster than hand.
Q. 3. How did Industrialisation gave birth to Imperialism?
Ans. There is no exaggeration in calling imperialism as the ill-begatten child of industrilisation. Other things beside, industrialigation chiefly needs two things. One of them being the constant supply of raw-materials and other is that the finished goods be sold at the same speed. The industrialized countries had introduced heavy import duties as protective tariffs to check the import from other countries. Faced with the problems of finding new markets for their products, the producer nations choose such countries where industrialisation had not yet taken place. Hence a race for bringing those areas their effective occupation or effective influence started among the various industrialised nations.
As a consequence, Britain, France, Germany and Japan etc. set up their colonies in Asia, Africa and South America etc. These colonies served their two purposes of being the suppliers of cheap raw-materials and an easy market for their finished goods. In this way, it can be rightly said, that industrialisation gave birth to imperialism or carving out of new colonies in other lands for selling their goods and as supplier of raw-materials for running their industries.
Q. 4. What are the useful and harmful effects of the Industrial Revolution?
Ans. The useful effects of the industrial Revolution are:
(1) Production by machines has met the growing needs of the growing populations of the world.
(2) Only machines have made it possible for the mankind to meet the primary necessities of food, cloth and shelter.
(3) Machines have relieved man of the drudgery of tiring and unpleasant jobs.
(4) Machines have brought more leisure which, in turn, has been utilized for the promotion of arts and culture.
(5) Large scale production of several kinds of goods has brought many articles of comfort and luxury within the easy reach of even common man who would otherwise not even dream of them.
Harmful Effects of the Industrial Revolution:
(1) The industrial Revolution sheltered the rural life by turning the farmers into landless labourers.
(2) Rural unemployment forced the unemployed farmers to migrate to cities in search of jobs. Thus, cities became overcrowded and many problems of insanitation and housing errore.
(3) The industrial Revolution made the workers life Quite miserable. They had to line in slums around the factories where they bell a prey to different diseases and epidemics due to the lack of sanitations and other health facilities.
(4) The industrial Revolution gave birth to imperialism or conquest of other countries by force.
Q. 5. How did the British manufactures attempt to take over the Indian market with the help of advertisements?
Ans. The British manufacturers attempt to take over the Indian market by adopting different ways and the most important among then was with the help of advertisement. The Manchester Industrialist began selling their cloth in India by putting labels on the cloth bundles. When buyers saw such labels on the cloth like ‘MADE IN MANCHESTER’ in bold letters, they felt confident about buying the cloth. They also very cleverly put on the images of Indian gods and goddesses and their cloth bundles which greatly affected the Indian buyers. They felt as if gods and goddesses gave divine approval to the goods they were going to buy. In the late nineteenth century, the British manufactures used calenders to popularise their products. Unlike newspapers and magazines, calenders were being used even by those people who could not read or write.
.
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q. 1. Who were the gomasthas?
Ans. Gomasthas were agents of the East India company who helped the company in possible ways establish its control over the Indian trade.
Q. 2. What is the Proto-industrilisation?
Ans. Proto-industrialisation means the existence of industries before the factory system. These was a large scale industries production for the international market before factories in England and Europe.
Q. 3. What is the Spinning Jenny?
Ans. The Spinning Jenny is a machine devised by James Hargreaves in 1764. This machine speeded up the Spinning process and reduced labour demand. By turning one single wheel a workers could set in motion a number of spindles and spin several threads at the same time.
Q. 4. What is a fly shuttle?
Ans. It is a mechanical device used for weaving moved by means of ropes and it places the horizontal threads (called the weft) into the vertical threads (called the warp). The invention of the fly shuttle made it possible for weavers to operate large looms and weave wide pieces of cloth.
Q. 5. What is meant by the Age of industries?
Ans. The Age of industries has meant major technological changes, growth of factories and the making of new industrial labour force.


03- The Making Of Global World

 

THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

CHAPTER – 03

NOTES BY  GULZAR SIR

IMPORTANT DATES TO REMEMBER

1. The Great Depression began inUS economy : 1929 C.E.
2. The Second World War broke out and ended :           1st September, 1939 to

1945 C.E.

3. IMF and World Bank : Both instutions or twinproducts

ofBrettonwoodsConference

1944.

4. The United Nations Monetary and : July 1944 at Brettonwoods

Financial Conference held                                              in New Hampshire, USA.

5. The full name of World Bank : The International Bank for

established after the Second World War                                    Reconstruction and

                                                                                         Development (IBRD).

6. IMF and World Bank started operation in :           1947 CE

TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS (SOLVED)

1. 1. Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which tookbalance before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia andone from the Americas.

Ans. Example I: Example from Asia :The Indian Ocean gave birth tobustling trade with goods, people, knowledge, cultures etc. The Indian subcontinent wascentral to these flows and a crucial point in the networks..

Example II:  Example for the Americas :The entry of the Europeanshelped expand or redirect some of these flows towards Europe.America’s goods like spagheti, potato, chillies, tomato, maize, groundnut, sweet potatoes etc.,entered in India and other countries of Asian continent

2. 2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern worldhelped in the colonisation of the Americas.

Ans. It is a historical fact that the global transfer of disease (such as small pox) in thepre-modern world helped  in the colonisation of the Americas by following ways:

(1) The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonisation were not just results ofsuperior fire works or weapons, Infact, the most powerful weapon was epidemic of smallpox.

(2) Germs of small pox they carried on their person. Natives on America were notimmunised from the disease hence, they started dying immediately.

(3) Small pox in particular, proved a deadly killer. Once introduced, it spread deepinto the continent, even before any Europeans could reach there. It killed and decimatedwhole communities, paving the way for conquest.

3. 3. Write a short note to explain the effects of the following:

(a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws.

Or

Why were the Corn Laws scrapped ? Explain any three reasons.

Or

Why did British government decide to abolish Corn Law?

(b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa.

Or

What was the impact of the spread of rinderpest or the cattle plague on theAfrican people? Explain.

(c) The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the world war.

(d) Explain the impact of Great Depression of 1929 on the Indian economygiving three points.

(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.

Ans. (a) The British Government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws:Increasing demand of foodgrains due to spurt in population, indigenous production fallenshort to cater their demand and sometimes, corn laws being just contrary to accommodatethe situation, these laws were repealed and rescinded. The abolishment of the Corn Lawshelped in checking the rising prices of food-grains in from other countries in England, thepeople became happy.

(b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa :(i) Rinderpest, devastating cattle disease,arrived in Africa in the late 1880s. It was carried by infected cattle. These cattle wereimported from British Asia. These were animals for meat of flesh. Indian soldiers weremeat-enters and that time engaged in invasion on Eritrea in Eastern Africa.

(ii) Entering Africa in the East, rinderpest moved West ‘like a forest fire’, streachedaround Africa’s Atlantic coast in 1892. Cape (Africa’s southernmost tip) was also infestedby that lethal disease just after five years. Along the way, rinderpest killed 90 per cent ofthe total cattle.

(iii) The loss of cattle made African unemployed and starving. Planters and mineowners as also colonial governments monopolised what scarce cattle resources remained,because they were wealthy and started pushing African’s into labour market.

(c) (i) The First World War was the most fateful war that the world had so far(1914–1918) seen most men of working-age were either maimed or dead. These deaths andinjuries reduced the able-bodied work-force in Europe.

(ii) With fewer numbers within the family, household income declined after the greatwar.

(iii) To fulfil the demand of workers women were given jobs. They became economicallyindependent or self dependent and helped their family economically.

(iv) Some working people were welcome from other countries in Europe. This newsituation helped in exchange of culture and immigration or migration a lot on the globallevel.

(d) Impact of the Great Depression of the Indian economy: (i) The depressionimmediately affected Indian trade. India’s exports and imports recorded nearly halvedbetween 1928 and 1934. As international price crashed, prices in India were also plunged.Between 1928 and 1934, wheat prices in India fell by 50 per cent.

(ii) Peasants and farmers suffered the most as revenue demand was kept fixed andrecovery was done through repressive ways.

(iii) Sharp reduction in quantum and price of exports and import resulted in peasant’indebtedness. They had to sell their jewellery and precious metals in order to meet theirexpenses including payment of imports/taxes.

(iv) In these depression years, India became an exporter of gold. The famous economistKeynes thought that Indian gold exports might have promoted global economic recovery.It certainly help in sped up Britain’s recovery, but did little for the Indian peasants. RuralIndia was thus, seething with unrest when Mahatma Gandhi launched the CivilDisobedience Movement at the height of the depression in 1931.

(v) Big landlords (who let their property) and middle class-cum-salarised people wereremained unaffected of the Great Depression. They even made fat their coffers but commonpeople succumbed to hunger and diseases.

(e) MNCs (Multi National Corporations) :(i) Multinational Corporations (MNCs)are large companies that operate in several countries at the same time. The first horde ofMNCs established in the 1920s. Many more came up in the 1950s and 1960s as USbusinesses expanded worldwide and Western Europe and Japan also recovered to becomepowerful industrial economies.

(ii) The worldwide spread of MNC is witnessed as sudden break-out or diffusion of theatom formed during both decades of 1950 and 1960. Till then, there were trade barriersimposed by Indian Government in the form of several taxes on import and exports.

(iii) MNCs surveyed in-depth, the increasing unemployment situation in India between1970 and 1990s. It found that is was golden opportunity to get the production work doneby the Indian youth longing for employment and lost of self-creativity. Refer to productionoperations commenced by MNCs during above said decades.

(iv) As it is all evident from China made TV sets, mobile phones and toys that lowwage is paid to factory-workers there. MNCs had installed their production units orindustries only in countries where cost structure of economy has subsided.

4. 4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology onfood availability.

Ans. Ist Example: Trade in meat spurt up when refrigerated ships were fabricatedand designed by technocrats. Till 1870s, live-stock was shipped from America to Europeand only then, cattle for slaughter used to turn into meat for consumption. However, nowthe meat packed in containers started reaching to centres in Europe from America.

IInd Example: Network of irrigation, transport system (railways, roads), efficienttools for agriculture, machines of modern technology for all agricultural operations,electrification, spurt in telecommunication systems, value addition to all agricultural andindustrial products—all could possible when technological development was entered in.Food was also offered with numerous varieties.

5. 5. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreements?

Ans. The meaning of the Bretton Woods Agreements :(i) This agreement wassigned between the world powers in July 1944 at Mount Washington Hotel situated atBretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA.

(ii) It was a framework that was drawn up by the industrial countries to recover andconsolidate the economies in the post war era.

(iii) Its main objective was to establish economic stability in the world.

(iv) Later on the framework of Bretton Woods Agreements was agreed upon at theUnited Nations Monetary and Financial Conference. This conference stabilished the IMF(International Monetary Fund) to deal with external surplus and deficit of its membernations.

(v) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (popularly known asWorld Bank) was set-up to finance post war reconstruction.In this way IMF and the World Bank (the both international financial institutionsstarted financial operation in 1947).

6. 6. Imagine that you are an indentured Indian labourer in the Caribbean.Drawing from the details in this chapter, write a letter to your family describingyour life and feelings.

Ans. Respected parents,

I am sure this letter will find of you in the best of health as it leaves me here. As youknow I have been hired under a contract which promises return travel to India after Ihave worked five years on my employer’s plantation in the Caribbean. Most of the workersworking with me are Indians and they are from eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, CentralIndia and the dry regions of Tamil Nadu. We were provided false information by agentsabout the nature of work and living and working conditions. On arrival at the plantation,I found conditions to be different from what I had imagined. Living and working conditionsare hard and there are few legal rights. Once I tried to escape in the wilds but I was caughtand given severe punishment.

I want to come back to India as soon as my contract ends. I have heard that ournationalist leaders have started opposing the system of indentured labour migration asabusive and cruel. I hope they will succeed in getting this system abolished. May God helpthem succeed so that I can return to India and reunite with my parents !

With regards,

Your Son

ABC

7. 7. Explain the three types of movements or flows within internationaleconomic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved Indiaand Indians, and write a short account of it.

Or

Mention three types of movements or flows within the international economicexchange in the 19th century.

Ans. Three types of movements or flows in international trade and commerce:

• Trade in goods like cloth and wheat.
• Migration of people in search of job.
• Short and long-term investments by traders in distant countries.

Examples : each type of flow from India and Indians :

(i) Trade and Commerce: Britain took wheat and cloth—cotton, silken and woolen of extraordinary quality and having demand in European countries from India. Inanticipation of wind-fall in land revenue and a number of other taxes and tariffs, theBritish Government in India focussed upon improving irrigation facilities in Punjab toincrease production of wheat and cotton.

(ii) Man Power: Some labourers were employed in railways, shipping and industrialfactories and plantation owned by the English in India and some were taken by factoryowners in England.

(iii) Capital :Indian landlords were supported by the British Government againstthe poor fellows of India. They were allowed to charge higher rate of interest. Some of thecapitalists invested in England and other European and African countries for better return.Indian traders and moneylenders also followed European colonisers into Africa. HyderabadiSindhi traders, however, ventured beyond European colonies. From the 1860s, theyestablished flourishing emporia at busy ports worldwide, selling local and imported curiosto tourists whose numbers were beginning to swell. Thanks to the development of safe andcomfortable passenger vessels.

8. 8. Explain the causes of Great Depression.

Or

What do you know about the Great Depression? Explain the major factorsresponsible for the Great Depression,

Or

What do you know about Great Depression ? What two any causes of it.

Ans. I. Meaning of Great Depression (1929-1933) :The Great Depression beganaround 1929 and lasted till the mid- 1930s. During this period, most parts of the worldexperienced catastrophic declining trend in production, employment, incomes and trade.The exact incidence and impact of the depression varied between counties. But in general,agricultural regions and communities were the worst affected.

1. Causes/Factors:

(i) Over Production :Over production of foodgrains and other agricultural productswas a major factor for depression. Price slumped because no expansion in demandside took place. Farm produce rotted due to glut in market.

(ii) Emphasis on quick loan recovery :USA initially financed to a number ofcountries in Europe including England but in phase of the Great Depressionshowed its teeth, loan recovery agencies of USA practised auction sale etc., ofproperties for recovery of loans and further loaning was stopped or sealed withan immediate effect. Debtors till ranking high in social status had to come onroad barefoot.

9. 9. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?

Or

What is G-77 ? What were its demands?

Ans. I. Meaning of the term G-77: Developing countries organized in a group ofseventy seven countries or G-77 when they saw and felt that upto two decades (viz. 1950sand 1960s) the Bretton Woods twins or kids (World Bank and IMF) had moulded all channelsto bring water only in fields of developed countries e.g. USA, Japan, France, Germany,Canada etc. Thus, G-88 came into being to safeguard interests of all developing nations.They demanded New International Economic Order (NIEO). By the NIEO, they meant asystem that would give them real control over their natural resources, more developmentassistance, fairer prices for raw materials, and better access for their manufactured goodsin developed countries markets.

1947. G-77 and the activities of the Bretton Woods twins :The IMF and the WorldBank are called Bretton Woods twins. They started their function in 1947.

(i) Dominant of USA :Decision-making in these institutions is controlled by thewestern industrial powers. The US has an effective right of veto over IMF and WorldBank’s key decision.

(ii) New International Monetary System :We know that international monetarysystem is the system linking national currencies and monetary system. The Bretton Woodssystem for this purpose was based on fixed exchange rates. In this system, nationalcurrencies, such as for example the Indian rupee, were pegged to the dollar at a fixedexchange rate. The dollar itself was anchored to gold at a fixed price of $35 per ounce ofgold.

(iii) Growth of Trade and Income :The Bretton Woods system inaugurated an eraof unprecedented growth of trade and income for the western industrial nations and Japan.World trade grew annually at over 8 per cent between 1950 and 1970 and incomes atnearly 5 per cent. The growth was also mostly stable, without large fluctuations. For muchof this period, the unemployment rate for example, averaged less than 5 per cent in mostindustrial countries.

(iv) Spread of Technology :These decades also saw the worldwide spread oftechnology and enterprise. Developing countries were in a hurry to catch up with theadvanced industrial countries. Therefore they invested vast amounts of capital, importingindustrial plant and equipments featuring modern technology.

(v) Role of IMF and World Bank :The IMF and World Bank were designed to meetthe financial needs of the industrial countries. They were not equipped to cope with thechallenge of poverty and lack of development in the former colonies. But as Europe andJapan rapidly rebuilt their economies, they grew less dependent on the IMF and the WorldBank. Thus, from the late 1950s, the Bretton Woods institutions began to shift theirattention more towards developing countries.

DISCUSS

Q.Find out more about gold and diamond mining in South Africa in thenineteenth century. Who controlled the gold and diamond companies? Who werethe miners and what were their lives like?

Ans. Gold was discovered in Johannesburg and diamonds in Kimberly (South Africa)in 19th century.

European migrants began mining gold and diamonds in South Africa. South Africawas producing world’s 27% gold from 1886 to 1914. Mining companies were controlled byEuropeans and Americans, as many of white settlers migrated to South Africa, desire ofmaking huge profits in the mining industry. They introduced technological advancesequipments and deep mining techniques so that profits could be increased. The workerson the mining fields were African natives, and most of them migrated of South Africa,from other parts and colonial states of African continents and they lived a miserable life.For example: They were paid ten times lower wages than the white workmen. The discoverof gold and diamonds in southern Africa led to apartheid (racism) from as early as 1889.

Cecil Rhodes was the first European to create a gold and diamond mining monopoly.Today ‘De Beers’, World’s largest diamond producing company.

1. Explain what we mean when we say that the World “shrank” in the1500s.

Ans. The word “Shrank” stands for increased interaction among the people of variouscontinents of the world. Pre- 1500, there was not much interconnectedness, trade andcommerce among the residents of various continents. Post- 1500, the commercial culturalexchange of ideas, etc. brought the continents close to each other.

1. Discuss the importance of language and popular traditions in thecreation of national identity?

Ans. Languages is one of the important factors which was responsible for the creationof national identity. A person is identified by his language and traditional practices. Peopleare born and due but language and traditions stay. They are always alive. They give anidentity to an individual, wherever he goes. Therefore, the language and popular traditionsare important in creating national identity of an individual.

1. Briefly summarise the two lessons learnt by economists and politiciansfrom the inter-war economic experience.

Ans. Followings are the two lessons learnt by economists and politicians from theinter-war economic experiences:

• Any industrial based on mass production cannot be sustained without massconsumption. To ensure mass consumption, there was a need for high and stableincome.
• The goal of full employment could only be achieved if govt. had power to controlflows of foods, capital and labour.

ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH THEIR ANSWERS

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. What is Group 77? Why did Group 77 countries demand a NewInternational Economic Order? Explain.

Ans. I. G-77 : The group of 77 developing countries which organise themselves as aseparate group to get benefit from the fast growth of western economies experience bythem after Second World War in next twenty to twenty five years.

1. Causes of demand of NIEO:

• The Group 77 countries (developing countries) demanded a New InternationalEconomic Order to get real control on their own natural resources.
• To get more development assistance from advanced or western countries.
• To precure better or fair price for raw material.
• They also desired to obtained better access for their manufactured goods indeveloped countries markets.

2. 2. Explain the statement ‘the food travels throughout the world’ withexamples.

Ans. The statement that ‘food travels throughout the world’ is a historical fact.

• Trade in goods including foodgrains fetches long-distance cultural exchanges.Traders and travellers introduced new crops to the lands, they travelled. Evenrare foodstuff in distant parts of the world might share common origins. Take forexample, spaghetti and noodles. It is believed that noddles travelled West fromChina to become spaghetti. Or, perhaps Arab traders took pasta to fifth centurySicily e. an island now in Italy.
• Similar food also known in India and Japan are as ancient in India that theirorigins may never be known. Such guesswork suggests the possibilities of longdistancecultural contact even in the pre-modern world.
• Many of our common foods, such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes,chillies, sweet potatoes, and so on were not known to our ancestors until aboutfive centuries ago. These foods were only introduced in Europe and Asia afterChristopher Columbus incidentally discovered the vast continent that was laterknown as the Americas including North America, South America and theCaribbean.

3. 3. Why has the indentured labour system in 19th century been describedas a new system of slavery?

Or

Nineteenth century indenture has been described on a new system of slavery.Explain three reasons.

Ans. (i) It was a world of faster economic growth as well as greater misery, higherincomes for some and poverty for others, technological advances in some areas and newforms of exploitation in others.

(ii) Most of the indentured workers migrated in hope for a bright future but they wereexploited by the recruiting agent and by the employer.

(iii) They had to pay a commission to the recruiting agent.

(iv) The agents used to provide false information to the workers regarding their finaldestination, modes of travel, the nature of work and living and working conditions.

(v) Sometimes agents even forcibly abducted less willing migrants.

4. 4. What was rinderpest ? How did rinderpest change the economic systemof the African society? Or

What was rinderpest ? State any four effects of rinderpest on Africa.

Ans. (i) The fast spread cattle disease is called Rinderpest. It was a type of cattleplague which destroyed cattle wealth of India.

Effects :

• Rinderpest arrived in Africa in the late 1880s. Within two years, it spread in thewhole continent reaching Cape Town (Africa’s souther most tips) within five years.
• The germs of the disease were carried by infected cattle imported from BritishAsia to feed the Italian soldiers invading Eritrea in Eastern Africa. The rinderpestkilled 90 percent of the cattle.
• The loss of cattle destroyed African livelihoods.
• Planters, mine owners and colonial governments now successfully monopolized what scarce cattle resources remained, to strengthen their power and to forceAfricans into the labour market.
• Control over scarce resourced of cattle enabled European colonizers to conquerand subdue Africa.

(ii) Large scale entry of the European powers in Africa: Spanish, Portuguese,French and Dutch began to settle in Africa. They wanted to hold larger farms, dig minesand plantations in Africa. They therefore, compelled African peasants to work as labourerfor them.

(iii) Exploitation of Africans as labourers: Europeans used many methods torecruit and retain labour. Heavy taxes were imposed which could be paid only by workingfor wages on plantations and mines. Inheritance laws were changed and only one memberof a family was allowed to inherit land while others were pushed into the labour market.Mine workers were also employed under strict vigilance and not allowed to move aboutfreely.

(iv) The cattle plague or rinderpest in Africa: Spread of animal diseases likerinderpest from Europe to Africa, also reveals how the world was shrunk in 1500s. Loss ofanimals left with native Africans no option but to start working as labourers to plantations,mines etc., acquired by Europeans.

5. 5. Explain the impact of the First World War on Britain.

Ans. (i) Post-war economic recovery proved difficult as the heavy expenditure on theWorld War I weakened the British economy.

• While Britain was preoccupied with war, industries had development in Japanand India. So now Britain had to face competition from these countries especially fromJapan.
• To finance war expenditures, Britain had borrowed liberally from the US. Thismeant that at the end of the war Britain was burdened with huge external debts.
• The war had led to an economic boom, e., to a large increase in demand, production,prices and employment. When the war boom ended production contracted andunemployment increased.

6. 6. Discuss the darker side of expanding international trade andglobalisation in late 19th century.

Ans. (i) Loss of Freedom and Livelihood: Trade flourished and markets expandedin the late nineteenth century. But this was not only a period of expanding trade andincreased prosperity. It is important to realise the darker side of this process. In manyparts of the world, the expansion of trade and a closer relationship with the world economyalso meant a loss of freedoms and livelihoods.

(ii) Division of Africa among imperialist powers :In 1885, the big Europeanpowers met in Berlin to complete the carving up of division of Africa between them.

(iii) Rise of colonial powers and sacrificing the interest of the colonialpeople :Britain and France made vast additions to their overseas territories in the latenineteenth century. Belgium, Germany and US also became a colonial power.

7. 7. How was the food problems solved in Britain after the scrapping of the‘Corn Laws’ ? Explain.

Ans. The food problem was solved in Britain after scrapping of the ‘Corn Laws’ takingthe following three steps :

(i) Foodgrains and eatable items were imported: After scrapping of the ‘CornLaws’, foodgrains, food items and various types of eatable items were imported. Theseitems were more cheap than these could be produced within Britain. The traders andmerchants of Britain started importing cheap food from Australia, USA, Russia an someother eastern European countries.

(ii) New shape was given to agricultural economy: (a) In Britain globalagricultural economy was implemented. Large scale imports of foodgrains shaped way forglobal agricultural economy.

(b) Food no longer came from a nearby town or village but from thousands of milesway.

(c) Large farms were created in Britain. These farms were cultivated with the help ofnew agricultural machines and tools. They (farms) were linked by railway, roads andwaterways.

(iii) Network of irrigation in colonies of Britain: The British colonial governmentin India and other colonies built a network of irrigation canals to transform semi desertwastes into fertile agricultural lands that could grow wheat and cotton for exports to Britain.

8. 8. Why was there a need for clearing lands in Britain during the 19^thcentury? Explain any three reasons.

Ans. There was a great need felt in Britain to clear land tracts due to various reasons.Out of those reasons only the three important reasons are explained as under:

(i) Increasing demand of foodgrains: Population in Britain at a very fast rate inthe late phase of 18th century. Due to high population the demands for foodgrains wentup. Tu fulfil the need for eatables, foodgrains, vegetables, fruits etc., land was cleared toexpand the area of farming.

(ii) Introduction and expansion of Railway: It was not enough merely to clearlands for agriculture. Railways were needed to link the agricultural regions to the ports.So land was cleared to lay new railway lines.

(iii) Homes and settlements :People had to settle on the lands to bring them undercultivation. This meant building homes and settlements.

9. 9. Discuss the main characteristics related with First World War timetransformation.

Ans. I. Main characteristics of the First World War time transformation :

(i) First modern industrial war :(a) The industrial interests of big powers gave itbirth. This war saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons, etc., on amassive scale.

(ii) Great shortage of men of working age: Due to the First World War, most ofthe killed and injured were men of working age. These deaths and injuries reduced theable-bodied work-force in Europe.

(iii) Women workers entered in service sector: During the First World Warperiod, industries were restructured to produce war-related goods. Entire societies werealso reorganised for war viz. men went to battle and women stepped into undertake jobs(in factories, offices, of several departments including schools, hospitals and so on).

(iv) Britain became a debtor and US became an international creditor: Thewar shattered the markets. Europeans’ earlier maintained agricultural production wasslumped. Money was borrowed from American Banks and US public.

10. 10. How did the First World War change the economic life of the people inBritain? Explain.

Ans. The changes occurred in Britain in the economic field after the FirstWorld War: The First World War had great impact on the economic life of Britain. Wecan explain this in the following points :

(i) Heavy expenditure: Britain had to fight in the First World War on severalfronts and areas. He has to bear very heavy expenditure during war years. Thepost war economic recovery proved very difficult for her. The world War Firstweakened the British economy.

(ii) Industrial competition from Japan: While Britain was preoccupied with war,industries had developed in Japan and India. So now Britain had to facecompetition from these countries especially from Japan.

(iii) Heavy loan burden of USA: To finance war expenditures, British had borrowedliberally from the United States. This meant that at the end of the war, Britainwas burdened with external debts.

(iv) Economic Depression: During war days prices of most of the commoditiesincrease. After the First World War several industrial units were close down.Unemployment increased. Exports of several items decrease. Some banks,insurance companies and financial institutions were force to declare themselvesbankrupt due to adverse impact of Economic Depression caused in USA from1929 to 1933.

11. 11. Discuss the impacts of the Great Economic Depression of 1929.

Ans. Impacts of Great Depression:

• Owing to withdrawal of loan by US, currencies like pounds/sterling collapsedand some major banks in Europe became bankrupt.
• in Latin America and elsewhere, it intensified the slump in agricultural and rawmaterial prices.
• The US attempt to protect its economy in the depression by doubling importduties also endured another severe blow to world trade.
• With the fall in prices and the prospect of a depression, US banks slashed domesticlending and called bank loans. Farmers could not sell their harvests, householdsruined and businesses collapsed.
• Faced with falling incomes, many households in the US could not repay whatthey had borrowed, and were forced to give up their homes, cars and otherconsumer durables.
• As unemployment soared, people trudged long distances looking for any work,they could find. Ultimately, the US banking system itself collapsed. Unable torecover investments, collect loans and repay depositors, thousands of banks wentbankrupt and were forced to close. By 1933, over 4,000 banks had closed andbetween 1929 and 1932 about 1,10,000 companies had collapsed.

12. 12. Describe the brief the destruction caused during the Second WorldWar.

Ans. The Second World War (1939-45) caused destruction maximum in the field ofhuman lives and property so far. We can discuss it under the following points briefly :

• At least 60 million people, or about 3 per cent of the world’s total population in1939, are believed to have been killed, directly or indirectly, as a result of thewar. Millions more were joined.
• Many more civilians than soldiers died from war-related causes g., Hiroshimaand Nagasaki of Japan.
• Vast parts of Europe and Asia were devastated, and several cities were destroyedby aerial bombardment or relentless artillery attacks.
• Perhaps the biggest impact of World War-II was that of Atom Bomb dropped inHiroshima and Nagasaki both till then densest populated regions in Japan. Ittook a toll of about 2.5 lakh people and similar number people are still sufferingfrom radiation related ailments.
• The war caused an immense amount of economic devastation and social disruption.Reconstruction promised to be long and difficult.

13. 13. Discuss the various items and export and import of India’s trade.

Ans. (i) India’s items of export : India exported cotton fabrics, jute products, coir,yarn, iron-ore, oil cakes, leather, leather-goods, engineering goods, chemicals, iron andsteel, tobacco, cashew kernels, tea, coffee, mica, manganese–ore, silk fabrics, footwear,vegetable oils, pearls and precious and semi-precious stones.

14. 14. What do you know about World Trade Organisation? Explain.

Ans. World Trade Organisation (WTO):

1. WTO was set-up by United Nations to promote international trade amongcountries.
2. Headquarter of WTO is located in Geneva.
3. It was established on January 1, 1995. Till January 2002, 144 countries were itsmembers.
4. It replaced General Agreement on Trade sand Tariff (GATT) which was establishedin 1948.
5. India became a member of WTO on January 1, 1995.
6. It significantly influenced the liberalisation process in the world.
7. WTO is based on principle of discrimination-free trade and promotion of faircompetition among member nations.
8. Its most of the rules were framed on the basis of persuasion and decisions takenby consensus. Ministerial Conference is its law making body but USA has saddlewith hegemony there.
9. WTO wants both import and export quotas to be abolished and countries to followmultinational agreements.
10. All members of WTO have adopted laws and policies in order to comply withWTO rules.
11. 15. Why liberalisation has been adopted in India? Mention freedoms givento private sector under it. Also enlist main measures undertaken for liberalization of economy in our country since 1991.

Ans. Causes of adoption of Liberlisation in India: India has-adopted liberlisationto achieve certain objectives. These are:

• To make free the Indian industry from needless and irksome controls.
• To upgrade technology and
• To develop international competitiveness.

Freedoms provided to private sector by liberalisation:

• Industrial licensing has been abolished except for five priority industries.
• Number of public sector industries has been reduced from 17 to 3.
• Freed from regulation like permission for importing raw materials.

Measures taken for liberalisation of India economy: Following measures havebeen taken for the liberalisation of Indian economy :

1. Abolition of Industrial Licensing and Registration.
2. Concession from Monopolies Act.
3. Freedom for expansion and production to industries.
4. Increase in investment limit of the small industries.
5. Freedom to import capital goods.
6. Freedom to import technology.
7. Free determination of interest rates.
8. 16. Describe the main changes that took place due to Liberalisation andGlobalisation.

Ans. We can classify the total changes that took place due to Liberalisation andGlobalisation into the following two categories:

(a) Visible Changes and

(b) Invisible Changes

(a) Visible Changes: 1. Better services in tele-communication sector, colour televisionsets and other electronic goods at low prices. 2. Market for cold drinks and food productstaken over by Pepsi, Coca-Cola.

(b) Invisible Changes:

1. India’s share in the trade of goods and services in the world has increased.
2. Investment from foreign countries increased from ` 174 crores in 1991 to ` 9,338crores in 2000.
3. We need foreign exchange to pay our imports (from ` 4,822 crores in 1991 to1,59,924crores in 2000).
4. New jobs created but not sufficient to meet all the needs, specially in the ruralsector.
5. Growth of industry not reached at its expected level.
6. 17. Describe any five measures of liberalisation taken by the Governmentof India.

Ans. Measures of liberalisation taken by the Government of India:

• Exemption of industries from licensing :The private sector has been freedto form all industries except a few from any kind of industrial licensing.
• Permission to import raw material from abroad :According to new economicpolicy the companies can import raw materials. In this case, governmentpermission is not required.
• Extending investment limit of small industries :The restrictions oninvestment by large business have been lifted.
• Doing away with the concept of MRTP :Now there are no MRTP companies.These companies can take their own investment decision and expansion plans.
• Expansion of industries :Now industries are free to expand themselvesaccording to the needs of market. Ceiling for capital has been abolished.
• Reduction in the number of industries reserved for public sector :Thenumber of industries reserved for public sector has been reduced from 7 to 3.

Now private sector can also enter in core industries like iron and steel, electricity,air transport, ship-building, heavy machinery and some defence goods.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. Explain the concept “The making of Global World”. Why should we tryto understand the inter-connection between different regions of the world?

Or

What do you mean by the making of a global world? Why is it important tounderstand the mutual relation between various regions of the world?

Ans. I. The concept the making of a Global World: It denotes all trading activitiesdeveloped among countries of the world. Propagation of religion and culture and movementof people, goods, capital that takes place when each set of two countries in the world joinseach-other through exchange of goods or trading.

1. Importance of understanding inter-connection among various regions ofthe world:

(i) Global Trade: In order to develop our knowledge over global trade and commerceincluding changes that take place on account of intercourse among differentcultures of the world.

(ii) Tourism: An individual’s journey to become a member of global society helpsused understanding balanced ideologies of universal nature in our preparationto become cosmopolitans.

2. 2. What is trade? Explain the meaning of international trade as well asstate-level trade.

Ans. (i) Meaning of term ‘Trade’: Exchange of goods or services between partiesi.e., people, states and countries.

(ii) International Trade: Trade between two countries called international trade.

(iii) State Level Trade: Trade carried on between two or more states is a state leveltrade.

Q.3. What is known as the Balance of Trade? Distinguish between favourableand unfavourable balance of trade.

Ans. Meaning of term “Balance of Trade”: The difference between exports andimports in known as balance of trade.

Difference between favourable and unfavourable between of trade: If thevalue of exports is more than the value of imports, it is called favourable balance of trade.

4. 4. Define the concept of:

(a) Market           (b) Economic barometer.

Ans. (a) Market: A market is a place where the exchange of goods takes place. Atthis place generally several sellers and many customers bargain. They sale and purchasevarious articles and services also.

(b) Economic barometer: Advancing international trade of a country leads to itseconomic prosperity and is therefore, considered to be the economic barometer of a country.

5. 5. Why can the First World War be termed as first modern industrialwar? Given three reason.

Ans. It is called an account of following reasons :

• It saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircrafts etc., which were all products ofmodern large scale industries.
• The scale of total death and destruction was very trade.
• To carry millions of soldiers, large warships and railway trains were requiredwhich could be manufactured in large scale industries.

6. 6. Differentiate between the following pairs of words/terms:

(a) Foreign trade and domestic trade.    (b) Imports and exports.

Ans. (a) Foreign trade Domestic trade:

Foreign trade: When our country exchanges goods or machines with another country it is knownas foreign trade or international trade.

Domestic trade :When the commodities are sent within thecountry it is called domestic or interstatetrade.

(b) Imports and exports:

Imports: Imports are made to meet the essential requirements of domestic consumption,investment,production and inputs for.

Export: Surplus production is sent outside thecountry to earn foreign exchange in export side of international trade of a country.

7. 7. Define the concept bilateral trade and multinational trade.

Ans. Bilateral Trade: It is an exchange of commodities between two countries e.g.,trade between India and U.K.

Multinational Trade: This is the process that makes possible the exchange of goodsand services among a number of countries.

8. 8. What do you mean by the term GPL?

Ans. The GPL stands for Globalisation, Privatisation and Liberalisation. We can explainthese three words/terms in the following way :

(i) Globalisation: Merger of economy of individual countries into global economy.

(ii) Privatisation: Ownership, control and management of private sector on almostall erstwhile public sector (phase-wise).

(iii) Liberalisation: Removal of trade barriers by relaxation of trade laws, importsetc. For example, creation of SEZs, with making labour laws lenient so as to giveway to contract/indentured labour system.

Q.9. Name the three international institutions that work for theimplementation of Globalisation.

Ans. The three international institutions are :

• International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• World Bank
• WTO

10. 10. State the basic and main objectives of New Economic Policy.

Ans. Main objectives of the New Economic Policy:

• It was to reduce domestic inflation and improve the balance of payment.
• To improve efficiency and productivity and put the economy back on the path ofgrowth with social justice.

11. 11. Define liberalisation. Mention two components of liberalisation/

Or

What is Liberalism ? Describe it’s two component in brief.

Ans. Liberalisation: It is condition of relaxation of all rules and regulationsrestricting earlier, the growth of the private sector.

Two components of Liberlisation:

• It allows private sector to run those industrial activities, restricted earlier topublic sector.
• The relaxation of all rules and regulations, which restrict the growth of privatesector.

12. 12. What do you know about WTO ? Write about it in brief (short).

Ans. WTO: It stands for World Trade Organisation. It was set-up in 1995 at Geneva,Switzerland. There was an international institution already working as an organization of the UN. It was called GATT—General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. GATT was anold organisation set-up in 1947 just after two years of the birth of UNO. In this way WTOreplaced GATT in 1995. Since then it is working independently, though attached with UN,upto some extent.

13. 13. Briefly discuss the merits of globalisation and write three steps whichhave been taken by government to promote it in India.

Ans. Merits of Globalisation:

• It helps in free flow of goods and services across the world due to reduction intrade barriers.
• Free flow of technology and experience.
• Free flow of capital among the world nations.
• It helps up to some extent in free flow of labour to different countries of theworld.

Steps taken by Government of India to promote Globalisation:

1. To promote globalisation and liberalisation, trade barriers have been lifted up bythe Government of India since 1991 C.E. It is free trade policy adopted underpressure of Ministerial Conference (law making body) of World Trade Organisation(W.T.O.) viz. an agency of United Nations Organisation (U.N.O.).
2. We are exchanging technology and experience with several countries of the world.
3. Restrictions on imports and exports of goods have been minimised. For example,taxes on imported goods have been reduced.
4. Central as well as state governments are encouraging investors from abroad toinvest in India.
5. 14. How did Silk Routes link the world? Explain with three suitableexamples.

Or

Describe any three features of Silk Routes.

Ans. Role and importance of Silk Routes in linking the world :

• The Silk Routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and culturallinks between distant parts of the world.
• The name ‘Silk Routes’ points to the importance of west-bound Chinese silk cargoesalong this route.
• Historians have identified several silk routes, over land and by sea, knittingtogether vast regions of Asia and linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa.

They are known to have existed since before the Christian Era and thrived almosttill the fifteenth century. But Chinese pottery also travelled the same route, asdid textiles and spices from India and Southeast Asia. In return, precious metals– gold and silver – Flower from Europe to Asia.

15. 15. Describe three types of flows or movements identified by the economists.What were the effects of these flows.

Ans. Three types of flows or movements: These are : (i) Flow of trade (especiallytrade in goods), (ii) Flow of labour, (iii) Flow or movement of capital.

Effects of three types of flows: All three flows were closely interwoven and affectedpeople lives more deeply than ever before. The interconnections could sometime be broken–for example restriction on more labour migration than goods or capital flows. Yet it helpsus understand, the nineteenth-century world economy better to look at the three flowstogether.

16. 16. Write a short note on Indian entrepreneurs settled abroad.

Ans. (i) Some Indian bankers were ShikaripuriShroffs and NattuKottaiChettiars.They financed either their own funds or borrowed funds from bankers in Europeancountries. On exports of agricultural product, they also financed corporate offices ororganisations in India. They financed in export of agricultural produces from Central andSouthest Asia.

(ii) Traders and moneylenders of India like Hyderabadi Indian traders opened theiremporia or offices for sale in bulk quantity in almost all seaports of colonies all over Europeand Africa. They used to sell local agricultural produces, handicrafts, curios and antiquity.

17. 17. Write any characteristics of India’s foreign trade. Also mention mainitems of exports of India.

Ans. Characteristics of India’s Foreign trade:

1. India’s foreign trade is characterized by a great variety in its composition.
2. Export is composed of a wide range of items from agricultural to industrial sector.
3. Computer software exports have also increased significantly.
4. 18. Enlist the reasons because of which need for new economic policy wasfelt in India. Also write its objectives.

Ans. I. Reasons prompted the need of NEP:

1. Increase in fiscal deficit,
2. Increase in deficit of balance of payment.
3. Gulf crisis.
4. Fall in exchange reserves.
5. Rise in prices.
6. Poor performance of public sector undertaking.
7. Main objectives of NEP:
8. Liberalisation of the economy.
9. Dispensing with too many controls.
10. Expansion of private sector.
11. Encouragement of private foreign investment.
12. Modernisation of agriculture.
13. Controlling fiscal deficit.
14. 19. What were the aspects of New Economic Policy adopted in India?

Ans. 1. A process of economic reforms was started here in July 1991. The main thrustof the new economic policy was on liberalisation, privatization and globalisation of theeconomy.

2. All except four industries have been delicenced. The limit of maximum investmentof ` 100 crores by a company has been removed. Most of the restrictions put on directforeign investment have been removed.
3. Limits on users of foreign exchange have been liberalized. As a step towardsprivatisation, newer and newer areas are being opened for private sector.
4. Now only five industries are reserved for public sector. As a step towardsglobalisation, the domestic industry is being exposed to competition with multinationalcompanies. Imports of capital goods and technology is allowed.
5. 20. What are the monetary reforms under the New Economic Policy?

Ans. Under the new economic policy, several steps have been taken. On therecommendations of Narasimham Committee, following reforms have been adopted :

1. Abolition of direct credit programme.
2. Free determination of interest rate.
3. Reconstitution of baking system.
4. More freedom to banks.
5. Improvement in accounting system.
6. Reduction in liquidity ratio.
7. 21. Discuss the positive aspects of globalisation and liberalisation.

Ans. Some Positive Aspects of Globalisation and Liberalisation:

• Globalisation and liberalisation have helped in rapid economic development. Alarge industrial base created and industrial production increased.
• Reduction in proportion of people living below the poverty line.
• Self-sufficiency in food achieved.
• Savings mobilised.
• Resources for development generated.
• A large pool of scientists and technically skilled persons formed.
• Export-oriented units established.

22. 22. Write any three negative aspects of liberalisation and globalisation.

Ans. Negative Aspects of Liberalisation and Globalisation: (i) Rate ofunemployment increased below expectations (ii) Growth rate declined to 4% per annum(2002-2003) from 8% in (1972-73) (iii) The laws failed to reduce concentration of economicpower in the private sector (iv) Public sector enterprises ran in severe losses to the tune of203 crore due to corruption, inefficiency and ineffective management.

23. 23. What is the role of WTO? What two benefits will India get by being amember of WTO?

Ans. WTO aims at conducting international trade among countries of the world in anopen, uniform and non-discriminatory manner. The benefit of being a member of WTOparticularly to India, is very limited.India can avail the opportunities for world trade without any restrictions according tothe norms of WTO. Similarly, India can export the agricultural commodities in world marketand can avail all the advantages like other countries.

24. 24. Write any three factors responsible for indentured labour migrationfrom India.

Ans. The main characteristics of indentured labour (bonded labourer under contractto work for his or her employer for specific period of time) migration from India are thefollowing :

• Domination and slavery was witnessed in the world order. Europeans becamemore and more wealthy while natives of Asian and African countries sufferedmisery, exploitation and poverty all simultaneously.
• It refers to large scale of labour flow or migration to the West from the East of theworld. Contract labour system emerged.
• It reveals decline in cottage industries in India, increase in rates of land revenueand displacement of peasants by Europeans to instal large scale industries there.Problems likewise created by Europeans in India, pressed Indian peasants tomigrate other countries as indentured labourers.
• It exhibits that labour demand was higher in Trinidad, Guyana and Surinam(Caribbean islands) and Mauritius and Fiji.
• Middlemen emergence can be seen during slave trade and contract labour systemadopted by Europeans. Slavery was all apparent from the behaviour made by theBritish plantation owners and miners with indentured labourers being contractperiod.

25. 25. What were the main sources of attraction for Europeans to come toAfrica in the late nineteenth century ? How did they exploit their resources?

Ans. Main sources of attraction for Europeans in Africa were:

• Europeans were attracted to Africa due to its vast resources of land and minerals.
• Europeans came to Africa hoping to establish plantations and mines to producecorps and minerals for export to Europe.
• Inheritance laws were changed so that peasants were displaced from land : onlyone member of a family was allowed to inherit land, as a result of which theothers were pushed into the labour market.
• Europeans divided different regions of Africa among themselves.

26. 26. Explain the role of technology in shaping the world economy of the19th century.

Ans. (i) Changes in transport and communication: Technology played a majorrole in all these developments. Railways, steam shipping, telegraph – were importantinventions without which it was not possible to imagine the transformation of nineteenthcentury world.

(ii) Link in various markets of the world: New investments and improvementsin transport; faster railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped move food more cheaplyand quickly from far away farms to final markets.

(iii) Impact on the meat trade: Till the 1870s, meat from America was shipped toEurope sin the form of live animals which were then slaughtered in Europe. But liveanimals took up a lot of ship space. Many also died in voyage, fell ill, lost weight, or becameunfit to eat. So the prices of meat were very high and it was beyond the reach of theEuropean poor. Due to high price, the demand and production was low. But the inventionof refrigerated ships made it possible to transport meat from one region to another.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. What does the concept trade refer to?

Ans. It refers to move or carry a person, goods, baggage etc., for value addition andprofit making motive.

2. 2. What is International Trade?

Ans. The trade between two or more countries/nations is called International Trade.

3. 3. What is State level trade?

Ans. The trade carried between two or more state with in the national boundary iscalled state level trade.

4. 4. Which are two essential component of trade?

Ans. Two essential component of trade are Export and Import.

5. 5. Define the concept balance of trade.

Ans. Difference between the total value of export and import is called balance of trade.

6. 6. What is called favourable Balance of Trade?

Ans. If the value of export is more than import is called favourable trade.

7. 7. How was the trade carried out in pre-modern days?

Ans. It was carried out on Silk route. Which is now famous Trade routes.

8. 8. What was a cowries ?

Ans. It is a type of form of currency.

9. 9. What did the concept ‘cowries’ mean?

Ans. The meaning of concept cowries is a seashell or cowdi in Hindi.

10. 10. Write one good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and why?

Ans. Silk route, because it connect the distant path of world.

11. 11. Which two precious metal flow from Europe to Asia in lieu of export oftextile and species ?

Ans. These two metal which flows as a trade of species and textile from Europe toAsia were- Gold and Silver.

12. 12. Define the concept Trade Surplus.

Ans. The concept ‘Trade Surplus’ refers to a situation under which the value of exportis more than that of import.

13. 13. List some common food items which were known to our ancestor untilabout five centuries ago?

Ans. These food item include potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, chilies, tomatoes,Sweet potatoes etc.

14. 14. Which was the most famous sea discovery of Columbus?

Ans. The most famous sea route discovery of Columbus was the continent of America.It was also known as Dark continent.

15. 15. Which country did not try to expand food production to meet theBritain’s demand ?

Ans. Japan did not try to expand her food production to meet the demands of Britain.

16. 16. Who were the first Europeans to conquer America?

Ans. The Spanish were the first European to conquer America.

17. 17. What were the Corn Laws?

Ans. The Laws passed by the British Government to restrict the import of corn wereknown as Corn Laws.

18. 18. Who worked in the plantations set-up in America by the Europeannations?

Ans. The Slaves from Africa worked as the plantation set-up in America by Europeannation.

19. 19. What is a market?

Ans. A place where goods are sold and purchased is called market.

20. 20. The full term of W.T.O is.

Ans. The full term of abbreviation W.T.O. is World Trade Organisation.

21. 21. Which city is known as fabled city of gold?

Ans. E1-Dorado which is South America is known as fabled city of gold.

22. 22. Which was the most powerful weapon used by the Spanish to conquerAmerica.

Ans. The most powerful weapon used by Spanish to conquer America was the germssuch as of the smallpox.

23. 23. Who was John Winthrop?

Ans. He was the first governor of Massa chusetts Bay Colony New England.

24. 24. Who is referred to as a dissenter?

Ans. A person who refuse to accept established beliefs and practices are referred to asa dissenter.

25. 25. Which new economic policy is followed by government of India since1981 ?

Ans. The policies followed by India since 1981 includes :

• Policy of Liberalisation.
• Policy of Privatisation.
• Policy of Globalisation.

26. 26. Upto the 18th century, which two countries among the following werethe richest countries of the world?

Ans. India and China were the richest countries among the world.

27. 27. Name the member of the Allies power during the “First World War”(1914–1918).

Ans. Britain, Japan, France and USA were Allies power during the first world war.

28. 28. Which new invention made it possible to transport perishable fooditems over long distances?

Ans. The invention of Refrigerated ships made it possible to transport perishable fooditems over long distance traveller.

29. 29. Define the Concept ‘Indentured Labour’.

Ans. A bounded labour under contact to work for an employer for a specific amount oftime, to pay off his passage to a new country on time.

30. 30. What was Rinderpest?

Ans. The fast spread cattle disease was called Rinderpest.

31. 31. Write one good example of widespread European imperial impact oncolonised societies.

Ans. The Spread of Rinderpest was the example of wide spread impact of Europeancolonial policy on society.

32. 32. Name some destination of Indian indentured labour.

Ans. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Central India and dry distnicts of Tamil Nadu were themajor destination of Indian indentured labour.

33. 33. What were the destination of Indian indentured migrant?

Ans. Trinidad, Guyana, Surinam, Maurities and Fiji are major destination of Indianindentured migrant.

34. 34. Where was Chutney music Popular?

Ans. It was popular in South American States of Trinidad an Guyana.

35. 35. Who works the implementation for Globalisation?

Ans. IMF, World Bank and WTO works of the implementation of Globalisation.

36. 36. When did adopt New Economic reforms (NEW)?

Ans. India adopted new economic reform in 1991.

37. 37. What does NIEO stand for?

Ans. NIEO stands fer New International Economic Order.

38. 38. What do you mean by G-77?

Ans. G-77 (Group-77) refers to the group of 77 developing countries which did notbenefits from the fast growth which western economies expeneries in 1950s.

39. 39. Name the countries who were the parts of Axis power during 2nd worldwar.

Ans. Japan, Italy and Russia were the Axis powers during 2nd World War.

40. 40. What was the human loss in the Second World War?

Ans. The total loss of human lives during 2nd world war estimated around nearlysixty million.

41. 41. Which factors were responsible for price rise of foodgrains in Britainin late nineteenth century was/were?

Ans. The factor responsible for the rise of foodgrainswere :

• Increasing demand for agricultural products.
• Increasing demand of foodgrains.
• Increasing population.

42. 42. List some of few food items that travelled from far away places toIndia.

Ans. (i) Tomato and sweet potatoes

(ii) Potatoes and groundnuts

(iii) Maize and chillies.

43. 43. What were the reasons of migration of the Europeans to America untilthe nineteenth century?

Ans. The reason for migration were:

• Widespread diseases
• Poverty and hunger that gripped Europe
• Overcrowded cities

44. 44. What were the impact of the germs on the America’s original inhabitants?

Ans. The germs killed and decimated whole communities of land and minerals.

45. 45. Why were Europeans attracted to Africa in the late nineteenthcentury?

Ans. They attracted to Africa due to the vast resources of land and minerals.

46. 46. List the factors that were forced the Indian indentured workers tomigrate.

Ans. These factors were :

• decline of cottage undustries
• raised land rents
• debt trap and hope of better future.

47. 47. What is common among V.S. Naipaul, ShivnarainChandrapaul andRamnareshSarwan?

Ans. They all are of Indian origin.

48. 48. Why did China became an attractive destination for investment byforeign MNCs?

Ans. China became an alternative destination due to abundance of cheap labour.

49. 49. The two world powers that emerge after Second World War and shapedthe post war reconstruction?

Ans. The US and Soviet Union.

50. 50. Which was the fabled city of gold?

Ans. El Dorado was the fabled city of gold.

vvv

 

 

 

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

 

1. Which routes connected various parts of Asia with one another and Asiawith Europe and northern Africa?

(a) Silk routes                                                       (b) Cereal routes

(c) Technical routes                                              (d) Spice routes.

Ans. (a) Silk routes.

2. What helped in long distance cultural exchange?

(a) Jewellery                                                         (b) Food items

(c) Clothes                                                            (d) Trade.

Ans. (b) Food items.

3. How many types of flows or movements were there in 19th century withininternational economics exchange?

(a) Three                                                              (b) Five

(c) Four                                                                (d) Six.

Ans. (a) Three.

4. Who played a great role in the making of a global world?

(a) Trade                                                              (b) Exchange of goods

(c) Ships                                                               (d) Technology.

Ans. (d) Technology.

5. When did Columbus discover America?

(a) 1492                                                               (b) 1488

(c) 1482                                                                (d) 1498.

Ans. (a) 1492.

6. When did the Great Irish Potato Famine take place?

(a) 1840-1845                                                      (b) 1845-1849

(c) 1846-1851                                                      (d) 1850-1855.

Ans. (b) 1845-1849.

7. When did the system of indentured labour migration get abolished?

(a) 1914                                                               (b) 1918

(c) 1921                                                                (d) 1927

Ans. (c) 1921.

8. When did the Great Depression begin and end?

(a) 1925-29                                                          (b) 1926-30

(c) 1928-32                                                          (d) 1929-33.

Ans. (d) 1929-33.

9. When did the IMF and the World Bank start their financial operations?

(a) 1947                                                               (b) 1952

(c) 1953                                                                (d) 1949.

Ans. (a) 1947.

10. What was Rinderpest?

(a) An animal disease                                           (b) A cattle plague

(c) A type of dogs                                                            (d) A breed of horses.

Ans. (b) A cattle plague.

11. What was the other name of group of 77 developing countries?

(a) M–77                                                              (b) EU–77

(c) G–77                                                               (d) ASEAN.

Ans. (c) G–77.

12. What was Chutney music?

(a) Music popular in India                                    (b) Music popular in Trinidad and Guyana

(c) Music poplar in America                     (d) Music popular in England.

Ans. (b) Music popular in Trinidad and Guyana.

 

vvv

01- The Rise Of Nationalism In Europe

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

CHAPTER-01

 

SECTION – I    ( HISTORY)

Note: These notes are prepared by my college who is presently working with me in  I. M. I Pathan pulwama and  i am publishing his notes without giving him permission. 

 

 

 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND TERMS

1. Absolutist: A form of monarchical government centralised, militarised and repressive.
2. Utopian: A vision of society so ideal that it is unlikely or exaggereated imagination to actually exist.
3. Plebiscite: A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal
4. Suffrage: The right to vote.
5. Conservation: The political belief that society should change as little as possible.
6. Feminist: A person who supports the belief that women should have the same right and opportunities as men.
7. Ideology: System of ideas that reflects a particular social and political vision.
8. Ethnic: Connected with or belonging to a nation, race or tribe that shares a cultural tradition.
9. Allegory: When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meaning, one literal and other symbolic.
10. Statue of Liberty: It has been put in Paris, the capital of France. It personified liberty as a female figure. It has the torch of Englihtenment in one hand and Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
11. Act of Union: A document signed by authorities in England and Scotland that formed United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.
12. Authoritarianism: Favouring or enforcing strict obedience to authority, especially that of the state at the expense of personal freedom.
13. Balance of Power: A condition is which political or military strength is divided between two countries or groups of countries.
14. Blood and Iron policy: Bismarck’s policy for the unification of Germany adopted by the Prussian monarchy ignoring the Prussian Parliament.
15. Bilateral: Involving two countries came in condition of mutual support under an agreement executed.
16. Bourgeoisie: It means the middle class. It is derived from a French word meaning ‘City dwellers’.
17. Buffer State: A small country locate between two powerful states that helps keep peace between them.
18. Ceasefire: A temporary suspension of war/battle.
19. Movements: A group of people working together to advance their shred political or social idea.
20. Multiracial State: A state made of people of many races. For example, before birth of nation states several states of Europe were multi-racial states.
21. Nationalism: The sense of unity felt by people who share a common history, language and culture.
22. Pact: A formal written or oral agreement between two or more countries, individuals or parties.
23. Policy of Containment: The action or policy of preventing the expansion of a hostile country or its influence.
24. Policy of Encirclement: The policy of forming a cordon of allies around a country, pursued in international politics.
25. Protectorate: A weak country under the protection and partial control of a strong country.
26. Convention: An agreement between or among states covering particular matters, especially less formal than a treaty.
27. Federation: The action of forming states into a single group with some of central organisation.
28. Humanism: A Renaissance cultural movement which turned away from medieval scholasticism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thoughts.
29. Humanitarianism: Concerned with or seeking to promote human welfare.
30. Liberalism: The 19th century European doctrine of the middle class encouraging greater political participation and economic opportunity for members of their class.
31. Capitalism: An economic system in which a country’s businesses and industry are controlled and run for profit by private owners rather than by the government.
32. National Assembly: Renamed Estates General in France after French Revolution of 1789.
33. Romanticism: A belief focused on emotions, institutions and mystical feelings to inculcate spirit of nationalism among people.

IMPORTANT POINTS AND DATES

1. The Seven Years War between England and France 1756-63
2. Birth of Napoleon 1769
3. The French Revolution 1789
4. Jacobin Club : Organisation of common people in France who were denied political rights in the new Constitution of 1791
5. Executive of Louis XVI (Emperor of France) 1792
6. Battle of Waterloo 1815
7. Congress of Vienna (or treaty of Vienna) held after fall of Napoleon 1815
8. Death of Napoleon 1821
9. Greek struggle for independence began 1821 C.E.
10. Revolutions of the liberals in Germany, Italy and Poland Austro Hungarian Empire 1848

IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES

1. Andreas Rebmann: He was a German journalist and a member to Jacobin Club.
2. Carl Welcker: He was a famous politician in Frankfurt Parliament (Prussian/ Germany).
3. Count Camillo de Cavour: He was most popular leader, Chief Minister of Sardinia (Italy) Piedmont.
4. Duke Metternich: He was supporter of absolute monarchy and Chancellor of Austria.
5. Ernest Renan: He was a great French philosopher, who prounded essential of a nation.
6. Friedrich Wilhlem-IV: He was monarch or king of Prussia (the most powerful state of Germany).
7. Friedrich List: He was a great German economist.
8. General Von Boon: He was Chief Commander of the Prussian Army.
9. Giusepee Garibaldi: He was a great Italian nationalist and freedom fighter.
10. Giusepee Mazzini: He was a great Italian revolutionary, nationalist and freedom fighter.
11. Frederic Sorrieu : He was a French artist, in 1848, who prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world made up of democratic and social republics.

TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS (SOLVED)

1. 1. Write notes on :

(a) Giusepee Mazzini

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour

(c) The Greek War of Independence

(d) Frankfurt Parliament

(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles.

Ans. (a) Giusepee Mazzini : He was an Italian revolutionary. He born in Genoa in 1807. At a young age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He, subsequently, founded two underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty. Following his model, secret societies were set-up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland, Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic frightened the conservatives. Metternich (monarch rule of Austria) described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of existing social order.’

(b) Count Camillo de cavour: The real credit for the unification of Italy goes to Cavour, who became the chief minister of Sardinia in 1852 A. D. He took upon the responsibility for unifying the regions of Italy. He was a wealthy and educated member of the Italian elite society. Cavour engineered a diplomatic alliance with France and Sardinia – Piedmont succeeded in defeating. The Austrian forces in 1859. Before he died, he had unified the whole of Italy under Sardinia with the lone exception of the papal territories of venetia and Rome.

(c)  The Greek War of Independence : The Greek war of Independence was fought from 1820 to 1832 between Turkey and Greece. Greece had been part of the Ottaman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst The Greek which began in 1821. The Greeks got support from many  western Europeans who had sympathies for Greece, to defeat the Suttan of Turkey and forced him to sign the treaty of constantinople of 1832, recognised Greece as an independent nation.

(d) Frankfurt Parliament: In the German regions a large number of political association whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all German National Assembly, on 18 May, 1848. The 831 elected  representations marched to Frankfurt Parliament convened in the church of St. Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a Parliament. The king of Prussia refused to accept the terms offered to him by the deputies. He joined with other monarchs to oppose the elected Assembly.

 (e) The role of women in nationalist struggles: In those parts of Europe such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire-men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutional monarchy with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands  or the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles–a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of formation or joining union or association. The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. This fact was evident from Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul where women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors gallery.

2. 2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identify among the French people ?

Ans. The French revolutionaries took the following steps to create a sense of collective identify among the French people :

1. They made the ideas of the fatherland popular among the citizens. These ideals laid stress on the nation of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. They chose a new French flag, the tricolor to replace the former royal standard.
3. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and it was renamed the National Assembly.
4. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nations.
5. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
6. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
7. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
8. 3. Who were Marianne and Germania ? What was the importance of the way in which they were potrayed ?

Ans. The female allegories (symbols) were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nations. In France, she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which under lined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and The Republic-The red cap, The Tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were created in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity. Marianne image were marked on coins and stamps as well. In Germany, Germania became the allegory of The German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of Oak leaves as The German Oaks stands for heroism.

4. 4. Briefly trace the process of German unification?

Ans. 1. The German peopl6e did not exist as a united nation. In 1848, efforts were made to unify the numerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under a democratic constitution. Men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.

2. They took advantages of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles, a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
3. They tried to unite different regions of the German Confederation into a nationstate governed by an elected parliament. However, this liberal initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
4. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
5. Three wars over seven year—with Austria, Denmark and France—ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles. On 18th January 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
6. 5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Ans. Napoleon introduced several changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him.

1. He formulated the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code.
2. He abolished the privileges based on birth.
3. This law established equality before law, and also secured the right to property.
4. Napoleon shortened administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from dues and serfdom.
5. In transport and communications system various changes took place.

DISCUSS

Q.1.  Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the Liberals ? What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the Liberals ?

Ans.  A Revolution led by men and women of the Liberal middle classes, parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants, and workers in many Europe countries in the year 1848 to continued their demands for constitutionalism with national unification is known as the 1848 revolution of the Liberals.

The middle classes Liberals stood for freedom for the invidual and equality of all before the law. It empharised, politically, the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution, Liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clergical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth century liberals also claimed that men without property and all women were excluded from political rights particularly right to vote.

In economiuc sphere they stood for freedom of markets and the abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. They argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital. The stimulated nobility of economic interests lead to national unification. The serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in most of the European countries including in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.

Q.2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe?

Ans. The development of nationalism did not came only through wars and territorial expansion, culture played an important role to the rise and growth of nationalism in Europe. The following three examples show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe :

• The effect of culture in creating the idea of nationalism was set by a romantic German Philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803). He claimed it was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nationalism was popularised.
• The effect of culture in arousing national feeling was presented by a Polish writer Karol Kurpinski. He celebrated the national struggle against the partition of his country through his operas and music, turning folk dances. Which he used as national symbols roused the national feelings of the people of Poland.
• Language also played an important role in the growth of nationalism. After Russia occupation, The Polish language was forced to uproot from polish schools and offices. The polish people revolted gaint the Russian rule.Which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.

3. 3. Through a focus on any two countries, Explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century ?

Ans.  In the nineteenth century, we saw the rise of nationalism in different countries of Europe. Here we shall focus on Belgium and Poland :

• Belgium: By the settlement of Vienna, Belgium was annexed to Holland so that a powerful state could be set up in the north-east borders of France. The people of Belgium suffered untold miseries, so there was a great discontentment among them against this unnatural union between the two countries which had nothing in common. Their demand for separate constitution was refused by king willian. The July revolution of 1830 raised the spirit of the Belgians. They rose in revolt and fought for three days with the royal troops sent to suppress them and proclaimed  their independence on November 10, 1830 A. D. The Prime Minister of England, Lord Palmerston, Summoned a conference of important Europe countries in London in 1831 A. D. In this conference England, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria recognised the independence of Belgium.
• Poland: The Vienna congress divided the kingdom of Poland among Austria, Russia and Prussia. The Czar of Russia Alexander I, carved out an independent. Kingdom of Poland and himself became its ruler. Being inspired by the July Revolution of 1830, The Poles raised a standard of revolt but Russia Army smashed their movement ruthlessly. Similarly, the revolt of the Poles in 1848 A. D. was also crushed with an iron hand. The accession of Alexander II, in 1855. A. D. Aroused the hopes of the Poles, and they revolted in 1863 A. D. But, no European country came forward to help the Poles and they were badly defeated Poles never revolted again to claim their freedom.

4. 4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Ans. The history of nationalism in Britain was unlike that in the rest of Europe in the sense that it was forced down upon the masses.

1. There was no concept of a British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The region was in fact inhabited by different ethnic groups (English, Welsh, Scot, Irish). Each group had its own cultural and political tradition. However, as the English state grew in terms of wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other states of the islands.
2. The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy, played a crucial role in doing away with the ethnic distinctions and uniting the different groups into a British nation-state, with England at its centre.
3. The ethnic nationalists were, directly, or indirectly, forced to join the English state to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain. The symbols of new Britain— the British flag, the national anthem and the English language were widely popularised, while the distinctive identities of the other joining states were systematically suppressed.
4. English culture dominated the British nation, while the other states became mere subsidiaries in the Union.
5. Thus, nationalism in Britain did not come about as a result of the people’s desire to unite or country wide movements for the same, but from the decisions of the people in power.
6. 5. Why did nationalist tension emerge in the Balkans?

Ans.  The causes which emerge nationalist tensions in the Balkans were :

• The majority of the people of the Balkans states were christians. The muslims who were ruling class oppressed them in many ways.
• By the beginning of the 19th century, The Turkish Empire became very weak and came to be known as the ‘Sickman of Europe’. This encourage the Balkans to regain their independence.
• The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans encouraged the people of these state to claim for independence or political rights on nationality. They had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.
• There was a clash of interests among the big powers of Europe, over the trade and colonies (territories) in the Balkans, Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungry were all interested in extending their control over The Balkan areas and simultaneously keep the others out. These rivalries led to a number of wars finally leading to the First world war (1914-1919)

ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH THEIR ANSWERS

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. Discuss in detail the difference between revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

Ans. Following were the difference between revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

1. Unlike the revolutions of 1830 the revolutions of 1848 were marked by two different kinds of popular insurrections. Those in France, Switzerland and disturbances in Britain and Belgium were democratic protests borne out of political frustrations, due to the inadequacies and exclusiveness of middle class governments. They demanded social and democratic reforms.
2. Most of the revolutions in Italy, Germany, Austria and Hungary were nationalistic and popular insurrections against foreign rules. They were against the repressive policy of Metternich and his allies which kept aspirations for national unification and constitutionalism at bay.
3. In 1848, unlike 1830 there were two storm centres namely, France and Italy and the greater was that of Italy than France.
4. Another distinguishing factor is the list of countries which escaped the 1848 revolution. In Britain and Belgium there were disturbances, the revolution did not occur in Poland and Russia. The Revolution was pre-eminently central European events. They happened in territories of Germany, Switzerland and Italy and peasant countries of the Balkans.
5. The revolutions of 1848 were in origin and impetus the work of towns g., in London and Birmingham, Paris and Brussels, Rome and Berlin, Vienna and Budapest. Leadership came from intellectuals, university professors and students, journalists and poets.
6. 2. Briefly trace the process of Italian unification.

Ans. By 1871, Italy’s political unification was complete. The mantle of Italian unification fell on King of Sardinia I Piedmont and its chief architect was Cavour, the chief minister of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont. Italian Unification was a result of diplomatic alliances and series of diplomatic moves, military events. The north under Austrian Habsburg was acquired by Cavour through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and by defeat of Austrian forces in 1859.

Guiseppe Garibaldi with armed volunteers acquired the southern kingdom of Italy and Sicilies by driving out the Spanish rulers in the famous expedition of the Thousand of South Italy. In 1861, only Venetia and the Papal city of Rome remained unincorporated. These were added in 1866 and 1870 as a result Bismarck’s defeats of Austria and France. Guiseppe Mazzini, founder of secret society of called ‘Young Italy’ sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. Homogeneity of language, strong nationalist cultural movements, growth of rail roads and possibility of economic development and political dominance all were factors which prepared the ground for Italian unification prior to it becoming a reality.

3. 3. Discuss the factors which led to the growth of nationalism in nineteenth century in Europe.

Ans. Followings were the factors which led to the growth of nationalism in nineteenth century in Europe :

1. Romanticism : Romanticism as a cultural movement focused on involving and mystical feelings instead of reason and science to develop nationalist sentiment. They helped create a sense of collective heritage and cultural past as part of nation building through use of folk songs, dances, music and folklore.
2. Vernacular Language and Music : Emphasis on vernacular language and music helped keep alive nationalist feeling and carry the modern nationalist message to large audience who were mostly illiterates for example, in Poland Karl Kurpunski celebrated the national struggle through his opera and music.
3. New Social Class : Growth of new social groups belonging to the educated middle class, constituting professors, school, teachers, clerks and businessman. It was this class which belonged to liberal nationalist thinking and led the revolutions.
4. Printing Press : With the print revolution, a new reading public emerged. The hearing and reading public become intermingled. It enabled wide circulation of ideas of enlightened thinkers and introduced, a new world of debate and discussion on tradition and despotism. It opened up the possibility of thinking differently and moved people to action.
5. Economic Hardships : Enormous increase in population, unemployment aggravated by migrant population from rural areas, imports of cheap machine made goods from England, peasant misery due to feudal dues, food shortages, rise in food prices, all added to the frustrations, and revolutionary thinking.
6. 4. Discuss the details the role of Culture in creating the idea of nation in Europe.

Ans. Followings points proved the role of culture in creating the idea of nation in Europe :

1. Art and poetry, stories and music, helped express and shape nationalistic feelings.
2. Romanticism, a cultural movement focused on emotions, intuitions and mystical feelings. Eugene Delocroix (Romanitc Artists) through his painting “The massacre at Chios” sought to appeal to the emotions of spectators and create sympathy for the Greeks. By highlighting the shared past, collective heritage and cultural past, romanticism sought to develop a form of nationalist sentiments.
3. Folk songs and folk poetry, folk dances, the true spirit of nationalism was popularised. Example : Karl Kurpunski of Poland turned folk dances likes Polonaise and Mazurka through his operas into nationalist symbols.
4. Vernacular language and folklore ancient national spirit was revived and modern nationalist message spread among large audiences.
5. 5. Great Britain was the model of nation, argued by some scholars. Justify the view?

Ans. Following points justify the views of those scholars who argued that Great Britain was the model of nation or nation state:

1. Unlike in Germany and Italy or France, formation of nation-state in Britain was not an outcome of any revolution.
2. Before 18th century, no British nation-state existed. The British nation was the result of a long and gradual political, cultural and economic processes.
3. The Parliament in Britain obtained power from the monarch in a long-run ideological conflict and Britain emerged as a nation-state.
4. A new and enlarged British nation was forged by propagating English culture in the nearby state. Ireland and Scotland were the examples.
5. 6. Discuss how Balkan region become a source of nationalist tension in Europe a after 1871.

Ans. Following points show how Balkan region become a source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 :

1. Balkans were a region of geographical and ethical variations comprising modern by Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were known as Slavs.
2. A large part of the Balkans were under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
3. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkan together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
4. Slavic nationalists struggled to define their identify and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
5. The Balkan states were jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of each other. Balkans also became an area of big power library.
6. Each European power such as Russian, Germany, England, Austria-Hungary was keen countering the hold of other powers over Balkans and this led to a series of wars eventually the First World War.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. What were the immediate results of the July 1830 revolution?

Ans. Followings were the immediate results of the July 1830 revolution :

1. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power by the Congress of Vienna were overthrown by the revolutionaries and constitutional monarchy established with Louis Phillipe as its head.
2. It sparked on uprising in Brussels which led Belgium to break away from the United Kingdom of Netherlands.
3. 2. How did France benefit from the Revolution?

Ans. France benefitted from the revolution in the following ways:

1. France became a republic,
2. All adult males were given right to vote,
3. Right to work was guaranteed to all.

Q.3. Differentiate between modern state and nation state in Europe?

Ans. Modern State had been developing in Europe for a long period before nineteenth century. In modern state centralised power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory.

On the other hand, nation states came into being through diverse processes in nineteenth century Europe. e.g., Germany, Italy, Nation states are one in which the majority of its citizens and its rulers come to develop a sense of common identify and share history of descent. This commonness is forged through such as struggles, endeavour of leaders and common people, sacrifice and devotion.

4. 4. Explain any three measures introduced by the French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identify amongst the French People.

Ans. Followings were the three measures introduced by the French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identify amongst the French People :

1. To replace the old royal standards, a new tricolor national flag was chosen. This tricolor was a symbol of revolution.
2. To make uniform (equal) law for all citizens, a centralized administrative system was introduced.
3. The regional languages were considered an obstacle in the way of nationalism. So, these were discouraged and ‘French” was promoted as common spoken and written language.
4. 5. Discuss in brief the reforms introduced by Napoleon in France.

Ans. Following were the reforms introduced by Napoleon in France:

1. Napoleonic Code was introduced in 1804 which ended the privileges based on birth. It established equality before law and secured the right to property.
2. The administrative divisions were simplified. Feudal system was ended. Peasants were freed from paying dues to the serfs and manors.
3. The guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.
4. Introduction of uniform law, standardised weights and measures and common national currency helped the growth of trade and traders a lot.
5. 6. Discuss the political, social and economic grounds for the rise of liberal nationalism.

Ans. Following were the grounds for the rise of liberal nationalism :

Political ideas :

1. They supported the end of aristocracy and clerical privileges.
2. They voiced for a constitutional and representative government through parliament.
3. They did not stand for universal suffrage.

Social ideas :

1. They supported freedom for the individual.
2. They supported the idea of equality of all before law.

Economic ideas:

1. Freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
2. Zollverein abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies.
3. 7. Write down the features of the Treaty of Vienna, 1815.

Ans. Following were the features of Treaty of Vienna.

1. The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power.
2. The kingdom of Netherlands was set up in the north.
3. Geneva was added to Piedmont in the south.
4. Prussia was given important new territories.
5. Austria was given the control of Northern Italy.
6. Russia was given part of Poland.
7. 8. How did the growth of industrilisation change the social and political equations of Europe ?

Ans. Followings were the changes taken place due to growth of industrialisation :

1. Western and Central parts of Europe saw emergence of towns and cities, strong commercial class, whose existence was based on the production for the market.
2. Emergence of working class and a new middle class comprising of industrialists, businessmen and professionals.
3. Among the educated liberal middle class, the ideas of national unity and abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

Q.9. Describe briefly flow of goods, capital and people in international economic exchange during 1815-1914.

Ans. Flow of goods : restricted to garments and clothes but spurt seen in raw materials like silk, cotton, etc. from India to Great Britain.

Flow of capital: It existed in the flow of goods mentioned above.

Flow of people: Developed countries restricted it but it was frequent, first as slave trade and then in the form of indentured labour.

Q.10. Culture play an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe ?

Ans. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe by following ways :

1. In Poland, Polish language was banned in schools. In reaction to it, Polish became the language of gatherings in Church. The use of Polish became a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance in Europe.
2. Grimm brothers collected a number of folk tales and made them a weapon against the French domination of Germany.
3. National feelings were kept alive through music in Poland.
4. 11. Discuss the contribution of educated middle class in the liberal movement in Europe.

Ans. Followings were the contribution of educated middle class in the liberal movement in Europe :

1. In France, the middle class, which consisted of professionals, businessmen and rich artisans, fought to abolish monarch and establish a republic based on universal male suffrage.
2. In other countries like Germany, Italy, Poland and Austrian empire, these people struggled for constitutionalism and national unification.
3. They demanded freedom of press and freedom of forming associations.
4. In Germany, the middle class was successful in holding Frankfurt Parliament, where they drafted a Constitution and made monarchy subject to Parliament.
5. 12. Discuss the impact of liberal movements on conservative forces in Europe in 1848.

Ans. Following were the impact of liberal movements on conservative forces in Europe in 1848.

1. The conservative forces became weak and could not restore the old order.
2. They realised that these movements can be ended only by granting some concessions to the liberal nationalist revolutionaries.
3. The conservatives abolished serfdom and bonded labour in Habsburg and Russia.
4. Hungarians were granted more autonomy by the Habsburg rulers.

Q.13. Describe briefly the reasons for the nationalistic upsurge in the 19^th century Europe.

Ans. Following were the reasons for the nationalistic upsurge in the 19th century Europe :

1. Oppression of the people under absolute rulers.
2. Liberal ideas spread by well-known philosophers and leaders.
3. Role of educated middle class.
4. With the outbreak of revolutionary wars, the French army and its soldiers began to carry the idea or nationalism abroad.
5. 14. What were the features of the class of landed aristocracy of Europe.

Ans. Following were the features of landed aristocracy of Europe:

1. The members of landed aristocracy followed a common year of life. This helped them in their unity.
2. They owned estates both in the rural and town areas. In other words, they owned majority of land tracts.
3. They spoke French. This helped them in diplomacy. This also helped them to have a distinct place in high society.
4. They were socially more united as they had marriage relations among their families.

Q.15. Was it true, that there was no nation states in Europe in mid-eighteenth century?

Ans. There were no ‘nation states’ in mid-eighteenth century Europe :

1. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms.
2. Eastern and central Europe were territorial kingdoms under autocratic monarchies.
3. The Habsburg Empire was a patch work of different regions and people. The people of those territorial states did not share a common identify or common culture.
4. 16. How did revolutionary ideas of French Revolution and to other countries ?

Ans. French revolutionaries clearly stated it was their mission to liberate not only the French people but also people of all parts of Europe from despotism. With the outbreak of French revolutionary wars, the French armies carried the ideas of nationalism. When Napoleon conquered large areas indirectly contributed to creating a feeling of oneness by his uniform administrative system and civil code. He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from bondage.

17. 17. What were the social and political changes took place in Europe after Industrial Revolution?

Ans. Industrial Revolution brought following social and political changes in Europe:

1. It resulted in the emergence of a working class population and a prosperous new middle class comprising of industrialists businessmen and professionals.
2. It was the new middle-class educated, prosperous and liberal-which resented the aristocratic privileges and among whom the liberal ideas grew.
3. In western and central parts of Europe a strong commercial class was emerged, it also witnessed rapid growth leading to growth of towns and cities.
4. Politically they emphasised representative government based on consent of the citizens and governance by constitution.
5. In economic sphere they opposed restrictions by state and advocated freedom of markets.

Q.18. Write down the features of new conservatism after 1815?

Ans. Followings were the features of new conservatism after 1815 :

1. They believed the established traditional institutions of state and society like monarchy, church, social hierarchies, private property and family should be preserved.
2. The realised modernisation initiated by Napoleon could be used to make state power more effective and strong.
3. Efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy and abolition of feudalism could strengthen autocratic monarchies of Europe.
4. They did not tolerate criticism or dissent and sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
5. 19. Write down the provisions of the Treaty of Vienna.

Ans. The Treaty of Vienna was signed in 1815, representatives of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, powers which had collectively defeated Napoleon and France.

1. Treaty restored the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and created a new conservative order in Europe, g., Bourbon dynasty in France.
2. France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
3. A series of strong states were set up on the boundaries of France, to contain it and prevent French expansion in future, g., Kingdom of Netherlands which included Belgium, was set up in the north, and Genoa added to Piedmont in the south.
4. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
5. In the East, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of saxony.
6. It sought to maintain a balance of power in Europe so as to prevent anyone power from demanding too large an area in Europe.
7. 20. How did nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerge?

Ans. The nationalism and the idea of nation-state emerged among the culturally diverse and regional-social groups of the European continent. Due to industrialisation, the new middle class emerged. It comprised of labour, workingclass population, industrialists, businessmen, professionals, etc.

The educated and liberal population among the middle class thought of uniting the culturally compatible sections of European society. Hence, they through of nationalism and this led to the emergence of the idea of nation-state.

21. 21. Write down the two main political, social and economic consequencesof 1848 revolution ?

Ans. Followings were the main political, social and economic consequences of 1848 revolution :

1. The abdication of the monarch Louis Phillipe and France proclaimed a republic based on universal male suffrage.
2. In Europe it marked the end of the rule of Metternich and secured the overthrow of his ‘system’ which had prevailed since 1815.
3. It destroy feudalism. Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished, both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
4. More autonomy was granted by the Habsburg rulers to the Hungarians in 1867.
5. 22. What is the map celebrating ? Give reasons. Do you think, it is, a true representation of the British Empire. Give reasons.

Ans. The map in celebrating “The British Empire”. Britannia the symbol of the British nation is triumphantly sitting on the globe and the angels holding the banner of freedom are blessing Britannia. The colonies are represented through the images of tiger, elephants, forests and primitive people. No, the depiction is not a true, representation. It is a very one sided, imperialistic view. The banner of freedom stressed on freedom is that of the British people only, not that of the subjects of the colonies.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What did the French revolutionaries consider as the mission and the destiny of the French nation ?

Ans. The French revolutionaries considered it as the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism. In other words, to help other people of Europe to become nations.

2. 2. Which things outweighed the advantages of the administrative changes brought about any Napoleon ?

Ans. The things which outweighed the advantages of the administrative changes brought about by Napoleon were increased taxation, censorship and forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe.

Q.3. How was the aristocracy organised in Europe in the 19th century?

Ans. In Europe, the members of the aristocracy were united by a common way of life that cuts across regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also townhouses. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. However, they were numerically a small group.

Q.4. What was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes during the nineteenth century ?

Ans. Freedom of markets and the abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital was a strong demand of the emerging middle class during the nineteenth century.

5. 5. When did the first upheaval take place in France and with what result ?

Ans. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. As a result of this upheaval the Bourbon kings were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries and a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its head was installed.

6. 6. What did Friedrich William IV, king of Prussia do when he was offered a crown subject to a parliament?

Ans. When Friedrich William IV, king of Prussia, was offered a crown subject to a parliament, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.

Q.7. What is Liberalism?

Ans. The world liberalism, has been derived from the Latin word ‘Liber’ which means ‘free’. So the meaning of liberalism is the representative government through parliament and the end of autocracy and certain privileges of clerics.

Q.8. Which important change came in France with the Revolution of 1830.

Ans. The important change that came in France with the revolution of 1830 was that the power of the Bourbon King was over thrown by revolutionaries and France came under the constitutional monarchy of Louis Philippe.

Q.9. What was the result of the Revolution of France of 1848 ?

Ans. The two main results of the revolution of France of 1848 was that Louis Phillipe was thrown out of power by liberal middle class and a republic based on universal male suffrage was established over there.

Q.10. When was Ireland and United Kingdom united and what was its impact ?

Ans. Ireland and United Kingdom were united in 1800 A.D. and Great Britain came into being. With Great Britain, its new symbols like language, flag, national anthem etc. also came forward.

Q.11. Who was Frederic Sorrieu?

Ans. Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist who prepared a series of four points in 1848. His four points visualised a dream of that world which is made up of social republics and democratic countries.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

 

1. In which century did nationalism emerge in Europe ?

(a) 16th Century                                (b) 20th Century

(c) 19th Century                                (d) 17th Century.

Ans. (c) 19th Century.

2. When did the French revolution take place in France ?

(a) 1789 A.D.                                      (b) 1799 A.D.

(c) 1792 A.D.                                      (d) 1795 A.D.

Ans. (a) 1789 A.D.

3. Who was the king of France at the time of French revolution ?

(a) Marie Antoinette                            (b) Louis XVI

(c) Czar Nicholas                                 (d) Edward II

Ans. (b) Louis XVI.

4. Who was defeated by the combined forces of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1815 at Waterloo ?

(a) Louis XVI                                      (b) Edward II

(c) Czar Nicolas                                   (d) Napoleon

Ans. (b) Edward II

5. When did the Treaty of Vienna take place ?

(a) 1815 A.D.                                      (b) 1828 A.D.

(c) 1820 A.D.                                      (d) 1819 A.D.

Ans. (a) 1815 A.D.

6. Who among these, was responsible for the Unification of Italy ?

(a) Mazzini                                          (b) Cavour

(c) Garibaldi                                        (d) All of these.

Ans. (d) All of these.

7. When did the German unification take place ?

(a) 1869 A.D.                                      (b) 1871 A.D.

(c) 1873 A.D.                                      (d) 1875 A.D.

Ans. (b) 1871 A.D.

8. Who was declared as the German emperor after the unification of Germany ?

(a) Kaiser William I                             (b) Czar Nicolas

(c) Louis XVI                                      (d) Napoleon

Ans. (a) Kaiser William I.

9. In which year did the revolution of liberals take place ?

(a) 1849 A.D.                                      (b) 1830 A.D.

(c) 1789 A.D.                                      (d) 1848 A.D.

Ans. (d) 1848 A.D.

10. Who played the most important role in the unification of Germany ?

(a) Kaiser William I                             (b) Czar Nicolas

(c) Otto Von Bismarck                                     (d) Napoleon II.

Ans. (c) Otto Von Bismarck.

11. When was the Act of Union passed between England and Scotland, which

resulted in the formation of ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ ?

(a) 1709 A.D.                                      (b) 1707 A.D.

(c) 1708 A.D.                                      (d) 1710 A.D.

Ans. (b) 1707 A.D.

12. Who took charge the France after the French Revolution ?

(a) National Assembly                         (b) Napoleon

(c) Louis XVI                                      (d) Estate General

Ans. (a) National Assembly.

13. Which one of these underground societies was formed by Giuseppe Mazzini ?

(a) Young Germany                             (b) Young Italy

(c) Young Asia                                                (d) Young World

Ans. (b) Young Italy.

14. Who among these, played a great role in the French revolution ?

(a) Voltaire                                          (b) Rousseau

(c) Montesquieu                                   (d) All of these

Ans. (d) All of these.

15. When did the Slav nationalist gather forces in the Habsburg and Ottoman

Empire ?

(a) 1905 A.D.                                      (b) 1907 A.D.

(c) 1909 A.D.                                      (d) 1911 A.D.

Ans. (a) 1905 A.D.

16. When did the Greek revolution for independence began ?

(a) 1819 A.D.                                      (b) 1821 A.D.

(c) 1823 A.D.                                      (d) 1825 A.D.

Ans. (b) 1821 A.D.

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02-Nationalism In India

 

NATIONALISM IN INDIA

CHAPTER-02                                                                               History-10th

 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND TERMS

1. Boycot : The refusal to deal and associate with people or participate in activities or buy and use things; usually a form of protest.
2. Picket: A form of demonstration or protest by which people block the entrance to a shop, factory or office.
3. Begar: A kind of labour get done by forcibly and without any payment.
4. Nationalism: Patriotism, a feeling of collective belonging to one’s nation; sharing common feelings of identity.
5. Nation-states: A state having common territory and inhabited by people sharing common languages, race, culture etc.
6. Martial Law: Law of military government. When martial laws are imposed, ordinary laws are suspended.
7. Stayagraha: A method of agitation and protest, based on truth and non-violence. This was first introduced by Gandhiji in Indian national movement.
8. Forced Recruitment: In colonies people were often compelled to join the army and fight war on behalf of the colonial rulers.
9. Khadi: Handspun handloom material.
10. Dominion Status: Status enjoyed by other dominions of British Commonwealth such as Australia or Canada.
11. Rowlatt Act: A law or tool of repression passed by the British Government on 18th March, 1919.
12. Dandi: A place in the western coast of India in Gujarat where Gandhiji broke the Salt Law in course of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
13. Civil Liberties: Rights and freedom enjoyed by a citizen.
14. Individual Satyagraha: Launched by Gandhiji in 1940. Selected individuals broke the laws of making anti-war speeches in public and offered themselves for arrest.

 

TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS (SOLVED)

Write in brief

1. 1. Explain :

(a) Why growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement ?

Ans. The growth of nationalism in the colonies like India, Vietnam, etc. is linked to an anti-colonial movement. This is because of the fact that the colonial people began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism. The colonial powers also exploit the people of their colonies so much that all sections of the society decide to throw off the foreign rule. The growing anger against the colonial government brought various groups and classes into a common struggle for freedom. The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together against foreign rule.

(b) How the First World War helped in the growth of the National movement in India?

Ans. The First World War created many problems for the Indians especially in the economic field, which ultimately led to the growth of National movement in India by number of ways as :

1. The First World War led to huge increase in the defence expenditure. So the British government increased the taxes, custom duties, etc. All such measures greatly resented the people an they thought of liberating their country from foreign rule.
2. The forced recruitment rural areas created and upheaval in the Indian society resulting in a widespread anger among the people against the British rule.
3. Through the war years, prices of almost every article was increased double which caused economic hardships to the common people an naturally, they were drawn towards the national Movement.

(c) Why Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act?

Ans. The Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act passed by the British government in 1919, because this act has been passed hurriedly through the Imperial Legislature council despite the united opposition and criticism of the Indian members. It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

(d) Why did Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-cooperation Movement?

Ans. Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-cooperation Movement in February 1922, A.D. He felt that the movement was turning violent in many places and Satyagraha’s needed to be properly trained before they could be ready for mass struggles. He also realized that if the movement was allowed to become violent then the government would also follow the policy of repression and let loose the reign of terror in which thousands of people would be killed mercilessly.

2. 2. What is meant by idea of Satyagraha?

Ans. The Satyagraha was a novel method of truth and non-violence which Gandhiji adopted in his struggle against racial regime of South Africa and the unjust actions of the British Government in India. The idea of Satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor. It presents that if your cause is just and true, you are bound to succeed in the end without resorting to violent means. By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph.

3. 3. Write a newspaper report on :

• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre
• The Simon Commission.

Ans. (a) The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre:

• On 13 April, 1919, General Dyer blocked the exit points from the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh where a large crowd had gathered—some to protest against the British government’s repressive measures, others to attend the annual Baisakhi fair.
• Dyer’s objective was to “produce a moral effect” and terrorise satyagrahis.
• Hundreds of innocent people including women and children were killed on tis day in the indiscriminate firing by British soldiers.
• This led to large scale strikes, clashes with police and attacks on government buildings by the enraged Indian people.

(b) The Simon Commission

• It arrived in India in 1928 and faced protest slogans of “Go Back Simon”.
• It was because this body was to suggest constitutional changes in Indian governance, but it did not have any Indian members.
• The Congress and the Muslim League jointly demonstrated against it. Lord Irwin announced a vague “dominion status” for India to quell the movement, leading to a Round Table Conference in October, 1929.

4. 4. Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania in Chapter1 ?

Ans. In the 19th century allegories (symbols) were used by the artists to represent a nation or a country.

(i) Germania : In Germany, Germania became the symbol of the German nation. In visual representation, she is shown as wearing a crown of oak leaves as German oaks stands for heroism.

(ii) Bharat Mata : In identity of India is virtually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Different authors have shown the Bharat Mata in the female figure which were quite different to each other. For instance, Rabindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata as an ascetic figure. She is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. In another figure, she is shown with a trishul, standing beside a lion and an elephant and both symbols of power and authority.

DISCUSS

1. 1. List all the different social groups which joined the Non-cooperation movement of 1921. Then choose any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they joined the movement.

Ans. The social groups joined the non-cooperation movement of 1921 are as :

• Middle Class people in the towns and cities.
• Peasants in the rural areas.
• Tribal people, and
• Plantation workers.

Each social group participated in this movement with its own specific aspiration and responded the call of Swaraj differently. Let us choose three groups and write about their hopes and struggles to join the movement as follows :

• The middle class people in the towns and cities took part in this movement, because they felt that if the foreign goods were boycotted, the sale of their textiles and the handicrafts or handlooms would go up.
• The peasants in the countryside also stood to gain by this movement. They had taken part in this movement because they hoped that by doing so, they would be saved from both the oppressive landlords and high reserve taxes of the colonial government.
• The plantation workers also stood to gain by this movement. They had taken part in this agitation with the hope that they would get the right to move freely in and outside the confined space of the plantation.

2. 2. Discuss the Salt March to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism ?

Ans. Gandhiji launched his Civil Disobedience Movement with his famous Dandi March on March 12, 1930. Gandhiji marched on foot to a small village Dandi on the western coast of Gujarat. He was accompanied by 78 followers. He reached Dandi on April 6, 1930, and there he broke the salt laws. The Salt March or Dandi March proven an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism as following ways:

• To break any British law was surely a step against colonialism. Especially, when a salt law was broken, it had a far wider repercussion on the whole structure of colonialism. Because salt was something which was casually taken by the rich and the poor alike and it was one of the essential items of food. The tax on salt and the monopoly was seen as an oppressive act of the government.
• The Salt march marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement. People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation with the British but also to break colonial laws. Thousands in different parts of the country broke the salt laws and manufactured salt and demonstrated in front of government salt factories.
• Gandhiji’s manufacturing of salt by boiling seas water is ceremonially violation of law. Now peasants refused to pay revenue and chowkidari taxes, and in many places forest people violated forest laws going into Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze cattle.

3. 3. Imagine you are a woman participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Explain what the experience meant to your life ?

Ans. As a woman participant in the Civil Disobedience Movement, I would be much thrilled that I had a chance to meet Mahatma Gandhi, especially in his Salt March from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi. I was then in Dandi on 6th April, 1930, when Gandhiji manufactured salt by boiling water. I as very much pained when Gandhiji along with many of his followers were taken prisoners. My blood boiled to see all this and I vowed to give myself to the task of liberating my country from foreign rule. After that, I discarded wearing foreign clothes and began to wear khadi saris. I took part in the many demonstrations against the British rule. I was also taken prison along with other women volunteers at two times. That time had gone but still those days of the Civil Disobedience Movement and fresh in my mind. I still feel proud that I had contributed a lot to the national movement.

4. 4. Why did Political Leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?

Ans. The different political leaders differed sharply over the question of separate electorates because of the following reasons :

• The congress leaders opposed the policy of the British Government in instigating different people in demanding separate electorates. They knew well that was all the mischief of the British Government who encouraged different people ask for separate electorates because such a policy would prolong their stay in India. The Congress leaders were one an all in favour of joint electorates.
• The Muslim leaders like Mohammad Iqbal and Mr. Jinnah asked for separate electorates to safeguard the political interests of the Muslims.
• The leader of the depressed classes, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, also asked for separate electorates because in the joint electorates, he feared the dominance of the caste Hindu in the elections.
• Gandhiji believed that separate electorates which show down the process of national integration and weaken the national struggle for independence.

ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH THEIR ANSWERS

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. Why did various classes and groups of Indians participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement? Discuss.

Ans. The various classes and groups of Indians participate in Civil Disobedience Movement and they meant Swaraj differently. In the countryside, rich peasants communities like the Pal of Gujarat and the jats of Uttar Pradesh, were active in the movement. These rich peasants became enthuastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. They organised their communities to participate in the boycott programmes.  For them the fight for Swaraj was a struggle against high revenues. The poor peasants joined the movement because, they wanted the unpaid rent to the landlords to be remitted. As the depression continued and cash incomes dwindled, the small tenants found it difficult to pay their rent.

The Business class and industrialists wanted protection against imports of foreign goods and attacked colonial control over the Indian economy and supported the Civil Disobedience Movement. They gave financial assistance and refused to buy or sell imported goods. Most businessmen came to see Swaraj as a time when colonial restrictions on business would no longer exist and trade and industry would flourish without constraints.

There was a large scale participation of women in the Civil Disobedience Movement. During Gandhiji’s Slat March thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to him. They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Moved by Gandhiji’s call, they began to see service to the nation as a sacred duty of women.

2. 2. Examine the factors responsible for the growth of national consciousness in the later half of the 19th century?

Ans. The factors responsible for the growth of national consciousness in the later half of the 19th century are as follows:

1. Economic Exploitation of the people : The British rule had led the economic exploitation of the people. The economic exploitation of the people continued unabated. The result was unemployment, poverty and famines all around in the country. This horrible stage of affairs prompted the people to get rid of foreign domination.
2. Administrative and Economic Unification of the country : The administrative and economic unification of the country brought by the British rule acted as a great unifying forces. The common laws and common grievances of the people brought them closer to each other.
3. Role of Press : Press is a powerful medium for mass awakening. Prominent newspaper like the Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Kesari, The Hindu, The Advocate, The Tribute, etc. largely aroused the national consciousness among the people.
4. Racial Arrogance of the Rulers : The adoption of the feeling of racial superiority by the British rulers made them openly insult the Indians. Such a thing was promptly resented by the Indians and they got ready to face the arrogant English people with their full force.
5. Unjust Action of Lord Lytton : The reactionary administration of Lord Lytton aroused discontent among the Indian people by passing the Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act, etc.
6. Impact of Education : After the introduction of modern education, the Indians through education and European literature became aware about the nation, democracy, equality, etc. which ultimately changed the mindset of the educated Indians against the foreign rule.
7. 3. How did cultural processes help in creating a sense of collective belongingness in India? Explain.

Ans. Nationalism spreads when people of different regions and communities begin to develop a sense of collective belongingness. This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles. but these were also a variety of cultural processes which contribute in creating a sense of collective belonging in India are as :

• The identity of a nation is more often symbolised in a figure or image. Here the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Such an identity went a long way in the growth of nationalism.
• Certain songs and hymns like ‘Vande Matram’ dedicated to the motherland also help in creating the sense of collective responsibility and nationalism in India.
• Indian folk songs and folk tales sung by blads who toured round the villages also helped in creating a sense of collective belongingness and nationalism.
• Rediscovery of India’s past also went a long way in creating a sense of collective belonging in India.
• The development and designing of a national flag like the tricolour flag and carrying it during the demonstrations against the British also went a long way in creating a sense of collective belongingness ad nationalism.

4. 4. How did the First World War help in the growth of the National Movement in India?

Ans. The First World War was a great event in world history. It created many problems for the Indians particularly in the economic field, which ultimately led to the growth of National Movement in India in a number of ways :

1. The First World War led to a huge increase in the defence expenditure. So the British Government increased the taxes, custom duties and introduced the income tax. All such measures which created a great economic problems for the people, they were greatly resented by them and they thought of liberating their country from the foreign rule.
2. Again throughout the war years, price of almost every article was increased which caused much economic hardships to the common people and naturally they were drawn towards nationalist movement.
3. The forced recruitment in rural areas created an upheaval in the Indian society resulting in a widespread anger among the people because their agricultural activities were disrupted and hunger and death began to take a heavy toll of their lives.
4. This war was between England and Germany and their partners but India was also made a party of this war without consulting the people. This thing greatly resented by the people.
5. 5. What was Khilafat and Non-cooperation Movements?

Ans. The Khilafat Movement : The Khilafat Movement was started by the Muslims all over the world to protest against the injustice done to Turkish Sultan by Britain and its allies who had partition the Turkish empire. The Muslims considered the Turkish Sultan as their Khalifa (the religious leader). A Khilafat committee was formed and country wide agitation was organised. The All India Khilafat conference held at Delhi in Nov. 1919 decided to withdrawn cooperation from the government if their demands were not met. The Indian leaders looked up on the Khilafat Movement as a golden opportunity for Hindu- Muslim unity. Early 1920, Gandhiji announced that he would lead a movement of Noncooperation if the terms of peace with Turkey did not satisfy the Indian Muslims. The all party conference held at Allahabad in June 1920 approved a programme of boycott. The Khilafat committee launched a non-cooperation passed a resolution that no Muslim should serve in the British Indian Army or offices. In September, Ali Brothers were arrested for sedition. The main leaders of the Khilafat Movement were Mohammad Ali and Shoukat Ali popularly known as Ali Brothers.

Non-cooperation Movement : The Non-Cooperation Movement was started by the Congress to support the Khilafat Movement in 1920 A.D. and to protest against atrocities on the people of Punjab. Gandhiji made an appeal to the people not give any sort of cooperation to the government. Later on this turned into mass movement. At Chauri Chaura, a village in U.P., the people set fire to the police station in 192 A.D. resulting in the death of 22 policemen. When Gandhiji heard this news he called off this movement in 1922. Motilal Nehru, Gnadhiji and C.R. Dass were main leaders of Non-cooperation movement.

6. 6. What is the importance of the non-cooperation Movement? How did this mark a new stage in the Indian National Movement?

Ans. Although the Khilafat and the Non-cooperation movements could not achieve their aims yet they had their own importance in the history of the freedom movement in India. They marked a new stage in the Indian National Movement. The following arguments support this:

1. They made the Congress Movement a mass movement for the first time. These movements gave rise to the sentiments of nationalism on a wider scale. When thousands and thousands of people walked together shoulder to shoulder, resisted the British for months, the National Movement naturally became quite wider in its scope.
2. They inspired the people with new confidence in their power to fight to freedom. The people realised the strength of their unity and cooperation and learn the lessons in self-confidence and self-reliance.
3. By these movements, the national movement was also changed into a revolutionary movement and the Congress became a revolutionary organisation.
4. 7. Why did the Indian National Congress change its goal from Swaraj to complete independence (Purna Swaraj)?

Ans. The Indian National Congress change its goal from Swaraj to complete independence due to the following reasons:

1. Overwhelming Poverty of India : India had been rendered so poor by the English that the Indian leaders no longer could see the plight of their countrymen. Such a situation forced many to get rid of the foreign rule and get complete independence for India. Mer ‘Swaraj’ would not achieve anything.
2. Dismay at the composition and working of the Simon Commission : The Simon Commission sent by the British Government in India for constitutional reforms had no Indian member. Moreover, it did not hold hopes of anything remotely the ‘Swaraj’. All the injustice was greatly resented by the Indians.
3. Anger over the Brutal killing of Lala Lajpat Rai : Lala Lajpat Rai was great nationalist leader of India. While leading a demonstration against the Simon Commission at Lahore. He was lathi-charged so brutally that he soon died. His death sent a wave of anger throughout the country. As such, Congress at its Lahore session held in 1929, declared ‘Purna Swaraj’ or complete independence as the goal of the National Movement.
4. Rise of the Revolutionary Movement : The death of Lala Lajpat Rai was greatly resented by the Indian youth who took over the revolutionary methods to turn out the British from India. The rise of revolutionary movements influenced greatly the policies of the Indian National Congress and it adopted its goal from Swaraj to complete independence.
5. 8. Discuss the role of the revolutionaries in India’s freedom struggle?

OR

What methods were adopted by the revolutionaries to achieve their aims?

Ans. The failure of the first non-coperation Movement (1920-22) caused despair among the Indian youth. They felt that freedom could not be gained in a begging bowl it had fought for. In 1924, the Hindustan Republic Association was formed with a view to organize a armed uprising. But most of the youths were asserted and put on trial in Kakori conspiracy case. In this case 17 of them sentenced to long imprisonments, four were transported for life and four including Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqullah were hanged. In 1928 A.D., Chander Shekhar Azad took the leadership of this party in his own hands and changed its name to ‘Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.’

When Lala Lajpat Rai died of fatal lathi blows which he received while leading a demonstration against the Simon commission, the Indian youth felt infuriated. Bhagat Singh, Azad and Raj Guru savard the account by shooting down a senior English Police officer. In 1928 A.D., on April 8, Bhagat Singh ad Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly to protest against the passage of the Public Safety Bill. Their aim was not to hurt anyone but to show the public protest against the bill. Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt deliberately allowed themselves to be arrested as they wanted to use the court as a forum for revolutionary propaganda.

When Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Raj Guru were hanged to death on March 23, 1931 A.D. it spread strong waves of anger among the people who had demanding the death sentence of these youths to be changed into life imprisonment. In the same way Chander Shekhar Azad died a martyr’s death in February 1931 A.D. in the Alfred Park of Allahabad. This park was later known as Azad Park, Surya Sen was hanged in 1933 A.D. In the same way Khudi Ram Bose and several revolutionaries kissed the hangmen’s rope. But by their martyrdom, it paved the way for the freedom of their country.

9. 9. Give an account of the Quit India Movement?

Ans. In 1942 A.D. Japan also joined the Second World War against England and soon it came very near to the borders of India. As India was under the denomination of the English, the various political leaders of India including Mahatma Gandhi feel that the presence of the English in India would naturally unite Japan to attack India. The Japanese attack could only be wared off if the English Quitted India. Consequently in May, 1942 A.D., Mahatma Gandhi started Quit India Movement and asked the English to Quit India and leave them alone.

As soon as Mahatma Gandhi started the Quit India Movement, a large number of Indians joined hand with him. Such a movement was bound to hit the interests of the English and to hinder their war preparations as they arrested various Congress leaders including mahatma Gandhi and declared the Congress party as illegal. This was too much for Indians and they rose in a open rebellion. Riots broke out at various places and the people set fire to many police stations and destroyed the post offices, railway stations an government buildings. The government too followed a very harsh policy and tried to suppress the agitation with an iron hand. Mass assets were made and thousands of Indians became targets of the British bullets.

10. 10. What was the impact of the Quit India Movement on the struggle of Freedom?

Ans. No doubt, the government tried to crush this movement at any cost and committed many atrocities on the people, but public also retaliated with same force. They rose in a open rebellion. They set fire many police stations and destroyed many post offices, railway stations and government buildings. According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad all this was manifestation of public faith and courage. Thus the Quit India Movement filled the Indians with faith and courage to throw out the foreign rule.

11. 11. Prove by giving examples that the Policy of Non-violence adopted by Gandhiji was mainly instrumental in achieving Indian independence?

Ans. Many people believed that the policy of non-violence adopted by Gandhiji was mainly instrumental in achieving Indian independence. They gave the following arguments and cited the following examples in support of their views :

(1) Non violence infused Bravery and Confidence among the people : The whole of Gandhiji’s philosophy is based on non-violence. He never believed that nonviolence was a weapon of the weak and the cowards. He maintained that it is the lack of power that makes a person coward as he hits others out of fear. But a nonviolent person armed with moral strength can walk even on a sword’s edge.

(2) Non-violence made the national Movement as Mass Movement : By his policy of non-violence or ‘Ahimsa’ Mahatma Gandhi inspired thousands of his unarmed country men to move ahead even in the force of police supervisor i.e., lathi charge, firing, arrests, etc.

(3) British Repressive Measures became ineffective in the face of non-violence : The greater was the repression, the stronger was the will of the people to oppose any unjust action or law of the British Government. Even the mightiest power of the world i.e., Great Britain could do nothing against the non-violent masses.

(4) Non-violence gave strength to every struggle started for the Liberation of the country: Whether it was the Satyagraha movement (1919), the non-cooperation Movement (1920-22), the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) or the Quit India Movement (1942), the policy of non-violence gave strength to every movement for the liberation of the country.

12. 12. In what ways was the British rule detrimental to the interests of almost of all sections of Indian Society?

Ans. The British rule was detrimental to the interests of almost all sections of the Indian society — the educated class, the Indian artisans and craftsmen, the Indian peasants, the Capital class, the Zamindars and the Merchants in the following ways :

(1) The Educated Class : The handful or the educated Indians soon came to know the true nature of the British administrative and the haughty behaviour of the British officers.

(2) The Indian Artisans and Craftsmen : They saw that the English had completely crushed their small industries and crafts in order to promote their selfish interests. They were left on the brink of unemployment and starvation.

(3) The Indian Peasants : Because of the British policies, the peasants had been reduced to utter poverty. They were overburdened with heavy taxes.

(4) The Capital Class : The Indian Capitalists noticed that all privileges were reserved for the British Capitalists and their own voice was like a cry in the wilderness. Then they began to regard the Britishers as their dead enemies.

(5) The Zamindars : The zamindars also noticed that the British for whom they collected more and more revenue had no hesitation in putting their properties to auction in case of minor delay of revenue.

(6) The Merchants : The trading classes were without exception, against the British because the foreign trade was controlled and dominated by the British traders.

13. 13. When was the Muslim League formed ? Describe briefly the policies of the Muslim League from 1906-1940 ? When was the formation of a separate state of Pakistan adopted as the main aim of the Muslim League?

Ans. The Muslim League was formed on 30th December 1906. It was formed as a result of the encouragement given by Governor-general Minto at Shimla to a Muslim delegation led by Agha Khan, the head of Muslim Sect. and Nawab Salimullah of Decca.

The objectives of the Muslim League were :

1. To promote among the Muslims of India feeling of loyalty to British government in the beginning and later on turned hostile to the British govt.
2. To protect and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India and respectfully represent their interests and aspirations to the government.
3. To prevent the rise of any feelings of hostility among the Indian Muslims towards other communities without prejudice to the other objects to the league.
4. To demand the British government to change (reverse) their earlier anti-Muslim policy.

In 1913 Mohammad Ali jinnah joined the Muslim League in addition to being a member of the Congress. At the Lucknow session held in 1916. The Muslim League and the Congress were united. According to Lucknow Pact, they were to make joint efforts for reforms in the Legislative Councils and Viceroy’s Executive Council. The Lucknow Pact was the result of Jinnah’s efforts.

The Montague-Chelmsord Reforms which became the Government of India Act, 1919 were condemned both by the Congress and The Muslim League. But the Non-cooperation movement which was called off in 1922, was followed by communal tensions and communal riots. The Muslim League disagreed with the certain demands of the Congress because of their discriminating policy towards the Muslims. The Muslim League cut itself from the Congress in the 1920s and started pursuing separate demands.

During 1906-1932 certain events happened that forced the Muslim League to change its policy when Khilafat and Non-cooperation movements were suspended, horrible communal riots broke out in different parts of the country. This gave a set back to Hindu- Muslim unity. On 16th August 1932, MacDonald gave his decision which is known as Communal Award and this was an open effort to promote and support two nation theory.

The utterances of the Hindu Mahasabha leaders also instigated the Muslim to ask for their own separate state. On 23, 1940, the Muslim League session at Lahore demanded a separate state Pakistan for the Muslims.

14. 14. Describe briefly the role played by Gandhiji in the struggle for freedom?

Ans. The real name of Gandhiji was Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi. he was born on 2nd October 1869 A.D. at Porbandar (Gujarat). After returned to India, when the first World War broke out, Gandhiji appealed to the Indian people to give full support to the British and cooperated with them. He wanted to win the goodwill and heart of the British. When he joined the freedom struggle it became nationalist and it became a mass movement between the years 1920-1935. It was due to the dedicated services of Gandhiji who came into prominence at this time and became the leader of the nationalist movement. His nonviolent policy brought the Indians into the mass movement.

Gandhiji made social reforms a part of the programme of the nationalist movement. He campaigned against untouchability, propagated cottage industries and Hindu-Muslim unity. He adopted Non-cooperation programme in 1920, Civil Disobedience Movement I 1930 and Quit India Movement in 1942. Under his leadership the people of India marched towards independence on 15th August 1947., India became independent, on January 30^th 1948 A.D. Gandhiji fell a victim to ‘Nathu Ram’ bullet shot and breathed his last. The Indians cannot forget the services of Gandhiji, Indians call him the “Father of the nation.”

15. 15. Describe the role played by Jawahar Lal Nehru in the Indian struggle for freedom?

Ans. Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14th November 1889 at Allahabad. His education began at home. he was sent to England in 1905, A.D. After completing his higher studies he returned to India in 1912, as a barrister and started his practice. Soon he began to take part in the politics. He met Gandhiji in 1916 and was highly impressed by Gandhiji.

He was elected as the President of the Indian National Congress at its Lahore session in 1929. He became a strong critic of the British government. In 1946, when Interim government was established at the centre, he was elected as its Vice- President. When Lord Mountbatten arrive in India with the ‘cabinet mission’ proposal. Nehru was to accept the idea of partition . Since 15th August 1947 till his death on 27th may, 1964 he acted as the Prime Minister of India.

16. 16. Describe the role played by Mohammad Ali Jinnah in freedom struggle of India?

Ans. Mohammad Ali Jinnah was architect was the architect of Pakistan. he was greater leader of the Muslim League. The Muslims called him the ‘Kayeed -e-Azam’. Mohammad Ali Jinnah was born on December 25, 1876 in Karachi. He got his early education in Karachi. He went to England in 1892 for higher education. He passed Bar-itlaw in only two years. He returned to India in 1897. He started working as a lawyer and very soon he became an eminent lawyer of Bombay.

In 1906 he became the private secretary of Dadabhai Naroji and began to take part in politics in 1909. He was elected to Emperial Legislative Council. In 1912, M.A. Jinnah joined the Muslim League. He was asked by the nationalists to do so to bring the policy of the league into line with the progressive and national aims of the Congress and G.K. Gokhale said, “He was the ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity.” he was able lawyer and in 1914 was sent to England to represent the views of the Indian Nationalist movement over a bill regarding political reforms in India, More significant was the unity between the Congress ant the Muslim League achieved at Lucknow in 1916. This part as the Congress- Muslim League united programme was called an important achievement. In 1917, he took active part in Home Rule League. He resigned form Emperial Legislative Council in protest against the Rowlatt Act in 1919.

The Muslim League out itself off from the Congress in the twenties. The Muslim League disagreed with certain demands of the Congress because of their discriminating policy towards the Muslims. M.A. Jinnah started pursuing its separate demand. In 1940, at Lahore session of the Muslim League, the demand for a separate state of Pakistan was made, under the able leadership of Jinnah, Muslims get it in 1947 and Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the founder of Pakistan.

17. 17. Why did various classes and groups of Indian participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement ?

Ans. Following are the contributions of various social groups in the Civil Disobedience Movement :

1. Rich peasants were very hard dhit by the trade depression and falling prices. As the government refused to reduce revenue demands, they in great numbers participated in the boycott programmes. For them, the fight for Swaraj was a struggle against high revenues.
2. The women participated in protest marches manufactured salt and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops and also went to jail.
3. Merchants and industrialists supported this movement. They reacted against colonial policies that restricted their business activities. They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods.
4. The industrial working class did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement in large numbers except in Nagpur. They selectively adopte some of the ideas of Gandhian programme, like boycott of foreign goods, as part of their own movements against low wages and poor working conditions.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. Write a short note on the heritage which the nationalists movement was bequeathed to us?

Ans. Our nationalist movement has been indeed very rich. It has given us our heritage over which we can feel proud of. The nationalist movement was a movement belonging to all shades of people and to all creeds. It has taught us to get united irrespective of our different religions and different castes it has taught us to be national. It made us bold enough to fight any imperialist country. The nationalist movement has been inspired by the values of democracy and socialism. It taught us to fight against exploitation, injustice and oppression. It gave us idea of our nation India which ha to be sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic and republican.

2. 2. What is the importance of the Karachi session of the Congress in 1931 A.D.?

Ans. In 1931, the forty-fifth session of the Congress was held at Karachi under the Presidentship of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel. in this session sone important decisions were taken by the congress. This session of the congress approved the Gandhi-Irwin pact signed between Gandhiji and the Viceroy Lord Irwin. It also passed a resolution on Fundamental Rights and Economic policy and laid down policy of the nationalist movement on social and economic problems facing the country. The resolution on economic policy favoured nationalisation of certain industries and promotion of Indian industries. The resolution also for schemes for the welfare of workers and peasants was also passed in this session of the Congress.

3. 3. What was the Impact of Simon Commission on the Political Conditions of India?

Ans. The Simon Commission was a great impact on the Indian political life, not because of its recommendations but because of the political fervour it generated. It helped in generating the climate for a political revolution aimed at securing freedom for India. The death of Lala Lajpat Rai further added to its significance. The Civil Disobedience movement was another event which began as a protest against this commission. It was on the basis of this report that the Act of 1935 was passed.

4. 4. What were the results of the Rediscovery of India’s Past?

Ans. There is no denying fact that the rediscovery of India’s past gave the Indians a sense of self-confidence and self-respect. They realised that they are in no way inferior to the west. Such a feelings unculcated the feeling of nationalism among them. There are certain critics who, however say that false pride in one’s past gave rise to the spirit of superiority and inferiority and which ultimately led to the rise of communalism in India.

5. 5. Explain any three reasons for the lukeworm response of some Muslim organisations to the Civil Disobedience Movement?

Ans. The three reasons for the lukeworm response of some Muslim Organisations to the Civil Disobedience Movement were the following :

• In the mid 1920, after the decline of the Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movement. The Congress came to be more clearly associated with Hindu religious groups like Hindu Mahasabha as such many Muslim organisations showed lukewarm response to the Civil Disobedience movement.
• At many places, Hindu-Muslim riots took place which alienated some of the Muslim organisations from participating in a common movement.
• Many Muslim leaders and intellectuals expressed their concern about the status of the Muslims as a minority group in India. They felt in such a position their culture and identity would be submerged under the dominance of the Hindu majority.

6. 6. What part did the Indian National Army play in the Nationalist Movement?

Ans. The Indian National Army as organised by Subhash Chandra Bose in 1940 A.D. to conduct a military campaign against the British fro the Liberation of India. It was formed by enrolling the Indian soldiers and officers captured by the Japanese in 1945 A.D.

The British imprisoned many officers and soldiers of the Indian National Army (INA) but they were set free by the British government because of protest demonstrations held throughout the country.

7. 7. How did the Plantation workers understand the idea of Swaraj? Explain.

Ans. The Plantation workers interpreted the term ‘Swaraj’ in their own way. They imagined it to be a time when all their troubles and sufferings would end. Some explantation workers felt that ‘Swaraj’ brought by Mahatma Gandhi would enable them to get land in their own villages. For some others ‘Swaraj’ mean freedom to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were placed. Now, they would be free to leave the tea garden in Assam, and visit their own relatives and children.

8. 8. When and why was the Cripps Mission sent to India ? Point out any two main defects responsible for its failure.

Ans. The Cripps Mission was sent to India in March 1942 under the chairmanship of Sir Stafford Cripps to win the cooperation of the Indian people in the Second World War. In fact, the position of the British in 1942 had become very precarious because of Hitler’s attacks so they wanted to enlist the cooperation of the Indians. But Cripps talks failed because of the following defects :

• He rejected the Congress proposal for the formation of a national government during the war.
• He was not prepared to give any assurance of granting independence to India even after the war.

As such proposals were rejected both by the Congress and the Muslim League.

9. 9. What were the reasons for launching the Civil Disobedience Movement?

Ans. The Civil Disobedience Movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi in March 1930. The following were reasons of starting it :

• All other methods of meetings, forwarding resolutions to the Government, peaceful demonstrations, hartals, etc.
• The British had promised time and again that they would responsible government to the people but what they actually gave as nothing but a farce.
• The British Government did not accept the eleven points which Gandhiji had sent to the Viceroy in his letter on 2nd March, 1930.
• The idea of the complete independence could never be achieved without a challenging the British government tooth and nail.

10. 10. Explain the circumstances in which Non-cooperation movement gradually slow down in cities.

Ans. The circumstances of gradually slowdown of the Non-cooperation in cities were as :

• The boycott of foreign goods, especially made cloth posed a great problem. The mill made foreign cloth was cheaper and refined as compared to khadi cloth which was rough and quite costly.
• The boycott of British institutions, schools and colleges etc. posed another problem. The alternate Indian institutions had to as yet set up which could be used in place of British ones. So teachers and students began trickling up back to government schools and colleges.
• Likewise other professionals like lawyers joined government courts, clerks, their offices and accountants their banks and other institutions. Lastly the withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement by Congress in 1922 sounded the death knell of this movement.

11. 11. What do you know about the Partition of Bengal?

Ans. The partition of Bengal was proposed by the then Governor-General of India Lord Curzon in 1905. He said that the Bengal was a large province with a population of eight crore and an area of about tow lakh sq. miles. It was very difficult to administer such a large provincial government. SO lord Curzon partitioned Bengal on 7th August, 1905 A.D. This partition was regarded a move to disunity among the Indians. The nationalist argued partition was made to weaken the Bengali influence in the Nationalist movement. The people of the country started anti partition movement and finally the partition proposal was dropped in 1911.

12. 12. What do you know about the Lucknow Pact?

Ans. The Lucknow pact of 1916 has a great importance. It united the Congress and the Muslim League on a common platform against the foreign domination. The Lucknow Pact was the result of the efforts of Mohammad Ali Jinnah . He tried his best to bring the Hindu and Muslim together. The Congress and the All India Muslim League sand their old differences and put up common political demand before the British government. The two organisations passed the same resolution, put forward a joint scheme of political reforms based on separate electorates to confer self-government on India at an early date. The Lucknow pact was an important step towards Hindu-Muslim unity.

13. 13. What do you understand by the term “Nation” and “Nationalism”?

Ans. Nation means the people who reside in particular territory/state having definite boundaries and who live under the same political , social and economic system. Nationalism was born after the close of the Middle Ages. It is result of new social and economic forces that put an end to an unpopular foreign rule and revalue a new political system based on democracy and justice. The essential features of nationalism are uniformity of laws and same political, social, economic system for the people inhabiting the state and sharing the common aspirations. Nationalism is a feeling of commonness among the people, sharing common history and culture living in a given territory.

14. 14. What were the characteristics of the communal parties of India?

Ans. The communal parties were not interested in the freedom of the country. They were mostly interested in getting concessions for their communities. The leaders of the communal parties demanded special previliges for their respective communities in the provinces where they were in a minority. Some of the characteristics common to all communal parties in India were :

• They based their activities on the interests to their communities and not on those of the whole nation.
• They had no concern with the problems of common people, such as poverty, social reforms and equality.
• They were interested in the rights and previliges of their communities and were opposed to political reforms.

15. 15. How did Gandhiji being the masses into the Nationalist Movement?

Ans. Gandhiji’s simple saintly life and his style of convincing the masses by speaking in the local languages familiar to them made him extremely popular as a leader. His policy of non-violent Satyagraha brought millions into struggle like Champaran Satyagraha brought the peasants into the struggle. His new methods of agitation like hartals, boycott, civil disobedience, non-payment of taxes, etc. appealed to the masses. He launched three powerful mass movements — Non-cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit India Movement. They influenced millions of Indians belonging to all sections of society to show bravery, self-confidence and to take up revolutionary passive resistance against the British rule. He was the first Indian nationalist leader who identified his life and his manner of living with that of that of a common man.

16. 16. When as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed ? Mention any of its provisions?

Ans. When the Civil Disobedience Movement was its peak, the British government in 1930 called the First Round Table Conference in London to solve the Constitutional deadlock in India because the Indian National Congress did not take part in it so nothing tangible came out of it. The British government was then forced to adopt a conciliatory policy towards the Congress. Soon a pact was signed in 1931 between Mahatma Gandhi, the Congress leader and the Viceroy Lord Irwin. This Pact is known as Gandhi-Irwin Pact. As a result of this pact, Mahatma Gandhi postponed the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to attend the second round table conference and British government released all the prisoners arrested during he Civile Disobedience Movement.

17. 17. Write a short note on the Poona Pact?

Ans. In 1930, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar organised the Dalits under the banner of the depressed classes association. B.R. Ambedkar demanded separate electorate for dalits. The British government had acceded to the demand for separate electorate for the dalits. Gnadhiji however felt alarmed at the situation. He knew that political separation of the dalits would make the task of their social integration still more difficult. Gandhiji resorted to a fast into death. Ultimately, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Gandhiji entered into a pact at Poona in September 1932, is called Poona Pact. As per terms of the agreement certain castes were listed as scheduled castes and there were provided reservation in the provincial and Central Legislature Councils.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. 1. What you know about the Civil Disobedience Movement?

Ans. Civil Disobedience movement means disobey the laws which are against the welfare of the people. In April, 1930, Gandhiji violated the ‘salt laws’ by preparing salt at Dandi (Gujarat) and thus was launched the Civil Disobedience Movement.

2. 2. Why was the Non-cooperation Movement called off in 1922?

Ans. In 192, after a violent incident at Chaura-chauri in Uttar Pradesh, where twenty tow policemen were burnt alive by a violent mob. So Gandhiji called off this movement.

3. 3. When and why was Khilafat movement launched in India?

Ans. After the First World War allies decided to disband the office of the Khalifa of Turkey. It annoyed the Muslims in India. They stared an agitation known as the Khilafat Movement under the leadership of Ali brothers in 1920.

4. 4. Who made the demand for creation of Muslim India?

Ans. Sir Mohammad Iqbal in 1930 on behalf of the Indian Muslims. He made demand for creation of a Muslim India within India and justified the demand for various reasons. Thus Iqbal had provided philosophical basis for the demand and the creation of Pakistan in years to come.

5. 5. What did the slogan of ‘Swaraj’ means?

Ans. The Swaraj means the government of the representatives of the people, but it was to be under the British rule. Under Swaraj, the Viceroy was to be appointed by the ruler of the England and the Prime Minister was to be chosen from among the members elected by the people. It did not mean complete freedom from all foreign control.

6. 6. Who were moderates of the Indian National Congress?

Ans. The Leaders of the Congress in early twenty years are called moderates. The early leaders of the Indian National Congress were called moderates on the policies, they adopted in their struggle against the British like petitions, deputations, annual resolutions and prayers.

7. 7. What is meant by complete independence (Poorna Swaraj)?

Ans. The complete independence on Poorna Swaraj means the establishment of democratic government, free from all foreign control. Under it the government was to run by the members elected by the people. They were responsible to the people.

8. 8. Why did Kisan Sabhas were formed?

Ans. Kisan Sabhas were formed in different parts of the country to register protest against the oppression to the landlords and the atrocities being committed by British rulers.

vvv

 

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

 

1. Which Indian city is associated with Jallianwala Bagh tragedy ?

(a) Agra                                                                (b) Kanpur

(c) Amritsar                                                          (d) Delhi

Ans. (c) Amritsar.

2. The Non-cooperation Movement was called off because of :

(a) Arrest of Congress leaders                              (b) Pressure from British rulers

(c) Illness of Mahatma Gandhi                             (d) None of the above.

Ans. (d) None of the above.

3. The resolution for Purna Swaraj was adopted at what session of the Congress ?

(a) At Lahore session                                           (b) At Bombay session

(c) At Karachi session                                          (d) At Delhi session

Ans. (a) At Lahore session, 1929.

4. Keda Satyagraha was associated with :

(a) Plantation workers                                          (b) Industrial workers

(c) Peasants                                                          (d) Indigo growers

Ans. (c) Peasants.

5. Who was went to England in 1914, represent Congress views regarding political reforms in India ?

(a) Nehru                                                              (b) Naroji

(c) Gandhi                                                                        (d) Jinnah

Ans. (d) Jinnah.

6. Who was the first President of Indian National Congress

(a) A.O. Hume                                                     (b) Gandhiji

(c) S.N. Benerjee                                                  (d) Lajpat Rai

Ans. (c) S.N. Benerjee.

7. Which person is known as the ‘Frontier Gandhi’ ?

(a) Feroz Gandhi                                                  (b) Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

(c) Nehru                                                              (d) S.C. Bose

Ans. (b) Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan.

8. In 1913, the Muslim League adopted for India the goal of :

(a) Partition                                                          (b) Pakistan

(c) Self-government                                              (d) Sovereign-government

Ans. (c) Self-government.

9. The Muslim League was founded in 1906 A.D. under the leadership of :

(a) Agha Khan                                                      (b) Sir Mohammad Iqbal

(c) Nawab Salimullah                                           (d) M.A. Jinnah

Ans. (c) Nawab Salimullah.

10. The military governor of Punjab at the time of Jallianwala Bagh tragedy was :

(a) General Dyer                                                  (b) Lord Dalhousie

(c) William Bentick                                              (d) None of the above

Ans. (a) General Dyer.

11. Champaran Satyagraha related to :

(a) Mining                                                            (b) Forestry

(c) Indigo cultivation                                            (d) Jute mills

Ans. (c) Indigo cultivation .

12. When was the Indian National Congress formed ?

(a) In 1882                                                                       (b) In 1884

(c) In 1885                                                                       (d) In 1883

Ans. (c) In 1885.

13. Which one of the following was not a moderate leader ?

(a) B.C. Pal                                                           (b) Dadabhai Naroji

(c) Surendranath Benerjee                                                (d) G.K. Gokahale

Ans. (a) B.C. Pal.

14. Who founded Indian National Army

(a) Jawahar Lal Nehru                                          (b) Subhash Chandra Bose

(c) Mahatma Gandhi                                             (d) Sardar Bhagat Singh

Ans. (b) Subhash Chandra Bose.

15. Name the leader who sacrificed his life while boycotting the Simon

commission ?

(a) Raj Guru                                                         (b) Sukhdev

(c) B.K. Dutt                                                         (d) Lala Lajpat Rai

Ans. (d) Lala Lajpat Rai.

16. Which one of the following was an extremist leader ?

(a) S.N. Benerjee                                                  (b) Ferozshah Mehta

(c) G.K. Gokhale                                                  (d) B.G. Tilak

Ans. (d) B.G. Tilak.

17. Who said these words, “political rights will have to be fought for” ?

(a) Gopal Krishna Gokhale                                  (b) Lala Lajpat Rai

(c) Moti Lal Nehru                                                (d) Balgangadhar Tilak

Ans. (d) Balgangadhar Tilak

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4. Magnetic Effects Of Current-Full

Q.1 Give a brief history of discovery of “magnetism”?

Ans. Discovery of Magnetism:- There are several early theories about the discovery of magnetism. According to one theory, more than two thousand years ago, a sphere boy, Magnes, was tending his flock of sheep on Mount Ida of the Island Crete. He had with him a long stick wit an iron point. As he stood watching his sheep, he rested his stick against a piece of stone. To his great surprise, he found the tip of his stick strongly attracted by the rock and he experienced some difficulty in removing it. He grew curious to know its cause. Upon digging the ground, he found a stone which has the peculiar property of attracting small pieces of iron towards it. As Magnes was the first to discover this magnetic rock, it was named after him as magnet.

   According to another view, pieces of magnetic rocks were first discovered in the province of Magnesia in Asia Minor (Magnesia is the modern town of Manisa in western Turkey). After the name of the province, it was named ‘Magnetite’. The word magnet is derived from magnetite and the property of attracting small pieces of iron by  magnet was called magnetism.

 

Q.2 Define:

     I. Magnet         II. Magnetism           III. Bar Magnet

Ans. I. Magnet:- The substance which has both attractive (i.e. attracts pieces of iron, steel, nickel etc.) and directive properties is known as a magnet. It is also called a loadstone.

II. Magnetism:- The property of a magnet or a loadstone to attract iron fillings is called magnetism.

III. Bar Magnet:- A Bar magnet is a long rectangular or circular bar of uniform cross-section which attracts pieces of iron, steel etc. A magnet has two poles near its ends: North Pole (N) and South Pole (S).

Q.3 Define magnetic field. Give its Unit.

Ans. Magnetic Field:- The space around a magnet in which the force of attraction and repulsion due to the magnet can be detected is called the magnetic field.

  The magnetic field has both magnitude as well as direction.

 The S.I.Unit of magnetic field is Newton/Ampere-meter. It is also called Tesla and is denoted by T.

           1T=1Newton1ampere x
1meter 

ð1T=1 N/Am

The magnetic field (B)of earth near its surface = 0.3 x 10^-4 T.

 

Q.4 What are magnetic field lines? What are the properties of magnetic field lines?

Ans. Magnetic Field Lines:- A magnetic field is described by drawing the magnetic field lines. When a magnet is placed on a cardboard sheet and gently some iron fillings are sprinkled uniformly in a pattern as shown in fig.

 

 

 The iron fillings arranges themselves bcause of the  fact that each piece of iron filling becomes a small magnet and experiences a force in a certain direction in the magnetic field are called ma gnetic field lines or magnetic lines of force.

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines:– Some properties of magnetic field lines are as:

(i). The magnetic field lines originate from the north pole of the magnet and ends at its south pole.

(ii). The magnetic field lines are crowded near the poles where the magnetic field is strong and are far apart near the middle of the magnet where the magnetic field is weak.

(iii). The magnetic field lines do not intersect one another, if they do so, there would be two directions of magnetic at that point, which is not possible.

(iv). If the field lines are parallel and equidistant, these represents a uniform magnetic field.

 

Q.5 Describe Oersted’s experiment to demonstrate the magnetic effect of current?

Ans. Oersted’s Experiment:– The magnetic effect of current was discovered by the Copenhagen Physics Professor Hans Christian Oersted in 1820. He found that a wire carrying a current was able to deflect a compass needle. Now, the compass needle is a tiny magnet which can be deflected only by a magnetic field. Since a current carrying wire was able to deflect a compass needle, it implies that a current flowing in a wire produces a magnetic field around it.

Verification:- Take a thick insulated copper wire AB whose ends are connected to a battery through a key (K) and fixed in the North-South direction. Put a plotting compass under the wire AB as shown in fig.

   When no current is flowing in the wire AB, the compass needle is parallel to the wire AB and points in the usual north-south direction. But, on passing electric current through the wire AB, the compass needle is deflected from its north-south direction as shown in fig.2. and when the current is switched off, the compass needle returns back to its original position. On reversing the direction of current, the needle moves in the reverse direction.

    The deflection of compass needle by the current carrying wire in the above experiment shows that an electric current produces a magnetic field around it.

Q.6 What is magnetic effect of current?

Ans. Magnetic Effect of Current:- When electric current is passed through a conductor, magnetic field is caused around it. This is known as magnetic effect of current. When the flow of current is stopped, magnetic field also disappears.

 

Q.7 Describe an experimental arrangement to demonstrate the formation of magnetic field pattern due to straight current-carrying conductor.

 Ans. Magnetic Field Pattern Due to Straight Current Carrying Conductor:- The magnetic field lines around a straight conductor carrying current are concentric circles whose centres lie on the wire.

     To demonstrate this, let us take a thick straight conductor (copper wire AB) and pass it through the centre ‘O’ of a thick cardboard. Connect the ends of the wire AB to the terminals of a battery through a key (K). also sprinkle some iron dust upon the cardboard. When current is passed through the wire AB and on tapping the cardboard gently, the iron dust is found to arrange itself in concentric circles around the wire. This clearly shows that a magnetic field has been set up due to the current flowing in the conductor.

     To demonstrate the direction of the magnetic field around the conductor, let us place a small magnetic compass needle on the cardboard and observe the direction in which its north pole points. If the current is flowing in the wire upwards, the north-pole of the needle is seen to point in the anti-clockwise direction and vice-versa.

     It has been found by experiments that the magnitude of magnetic field (B) is:

(i) directly proportional to the current (I) passing in the wire.

         i.e B α I                 ①

& (ii) inversely proportional to the distance (r) from the wire.

           i.e. B α 1r                     ②

  From ① and ②, we get

          B α  Ir

     

Q.8 State and explain Maxwell’s right hand thumb rule.

Ans. Maxwell’s Right-Hand Thumb Rule:- If the direction of current is known, then the direction of magnetic field produced by a straight wire carrying current can be obtained by using Maxwell’s Right-hand thumb rule.

        According to Maxwell’s right-hand thumb rule,” Imagine that you are holding the current carrying wire in your right hand so that your thumb points in the direction of current, then the direction in which your fingers encircle the wire will give the direction of magnetic field lines around the wire.” E.g. If AB is a current carrying straight wire in which the direction of current is from A to B, is held in right hand such that the thumb points in the direction of current, then according to Maxwell’s right-hand thumb rule, the direction of curling fingers gives the direction of magnetic field lines(which is anti-clockwise here) as shown in fig.

  

  Maxwell’s right-hand thumb rule is also known as Maxwell’s Cork-screw rule according to which, “ Imagine driving a cork-screw in the direction of current, then the direction in which we turn its handle is the direction of magnetic field (or magnetic field lines).

Q.9 Describe the magnetic field pattern produced by a current carrying circular loop.

Ans. Magnetic field due to a current carrying circular loop (Wire):- To find the magnetic field due to a circular loop, it is held in a vertical plane and is made to pass through smooth cardboard in such a way that the centre (O) of the coil lies at the cardboard. When a current is passed through the coil and iron fillings are sprinkled on the cardboard. These iron fillings arrange themselves in a pattern as shown in fig.

    The magnetic field lines near the coil are circular and concentric and becomes straight at the centre of the loop. By applying Maxwell’s right-hand thumb rule, it can be seen that each segment of circular wire carrying current produces magnetic field lines in the same direction within the loop and at the centre of the loop, all magnetic field lines are in the same direction and aid each other, due to which the strength of the magnetic field increases.

        The magnitude of the magnetic field (B) at the of the coil is:

(i). directly proportional to the current (I) flowing it.

      i.e.   B α I                           ①

(ii). Inversely proportional to the radius (r) of the coil

    i.e.  B α 1r                              ②

(iii). directly proportional to total number of turns (N) in the coil.

           i.e. B α N                              ③

    From ①, ② and ③, we get

             B
α I x Nr

    A current carrying circular loop behaves as a thin magnet whose one face is a north pole and the other pole is a south pole.

 

Q.10 Describe the magnetic field pattern produced due to a current-carrying solenoid.

Ans. Magnetic field pattern due to a solenoid:- An insulated copper wire wound on a cylindrical cardboard (or plastic) tube such that its length is greater than its diameter is known as a solenoid.

     To obtain the pattern of magnetic field due to a solenoid, consider a solenoid AB whose ends are connected to battery (B) through a key (K) as shown in fig.

 

   When an electric current is passed through the solenoid (AB), it produces a magnetic field around it. The magnetic field produced by a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet. The magnetic field lines inside the solenoid are nearly straight and parallel to its axis and thus the magnetic field inside a solenoid is uniform. One end of the current carrying solenoid acts as a north pole and the other end acts as a south pole. The end of the solenoid which is attracted by the north pole of a bar magnet is called south pole while as that repelled by the north pole of the bar magnet is called the north pole of the solenoid.

      The magnitude of the magnetic field (B) inside the solenoid is:

(i). directly proportional to the to the current flowing through it.

            i.e.     B α I                           ①

(ii). directly proportional to the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid(n).

            i.e.      B  α n                         ②

       From ① and ②, we get

                B α nI

          Where n = N/l.

         Here, N = Total number of turns in the solenoid

          And   l = Length of solenoid.

 Q.11 Discuss what happens when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field.

OR

Explain the cause of force acting on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

Ans. Force on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field:- When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force, except when it is placed parallel to the magnetic field. In other words, when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is exerted on the conductor which makes the conductor to move.

Experiment to demonstrate the force acting on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field: The Kicking Wire Experiment:- A thick copper wire AB is suspended vertically from a support ‘T’ by means of a flexible joint ‘J’. the lower end B of this wire is dipped in a pool of mercury kept in a vessel and is free to move between the poles of a U-shaped magnet. An electric current is provided by connecting the end A of the wire with positive terminal of the battery and by dipping another wire from negative terminal into mercury pool as shown in fig.

 

  Observations:- The following observations are made:

 (i). When the key (K) is pressed, the current flows downwards and the wire AB is kicked forwards (as shown by AB’). This causes the wire to leave contact with the mercury and breaks the circuit. When the wire falls back to its original position, it reconnects with mercury and the action is repeated again and again.

 (ii). on reversing the battery connections, the current in the wire flows upwards and the wire swings backwards out of mercury.

 (iii). the direction of force on the wire is also reversed if the direction of magnetic field is reversed i.e. by turning the magnet so that its poles are reversed.

 (iv). No force acts on a wire when it is parallel to the magnetic field.

Magnitude of Force:– It has been found experimentally that the force (F) is:

   (i). directly proportional to the current (I).

                  i.e. F∝I                         ①

    (ii). directly proportional to the length of the conductor inside the magnetic field.

                  i.e. F ∝l                      ②

   (iii). directly proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field.

                 i.e.  F α B                       ③

          From ①, ② and ③, we get

                 F∝I
l B

          Or  F=KxIxlxB

                        Where K = 1 is a constant of proportionality.

     .:  F=IxlxB

 

Q.12 State Fleming’s left-hand rule for the direction of force.

Ans. Fleming’s Left-hand Rule:- Fleming gave a simple rule to determine the direction of force acting on a current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field. According to Fleming’s left-hand rule, “Stretch the forefinger, the central finger and the thumb of your left hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger shows the direction of the magnetic field and the central finger shows the direction of current, then the thumb points in the direction of force (motion) on the conductor”

Q.14 State Fleming’s Right-hand rule.

Ans. Fleming’s right-hand Rule:- According to Fleming’s right-hand rule, “Stretch the forefinger, the central finger and the thumb of your right hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger shows the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb shows the direction of motion (or force) of the conductor, then the central finger will indicate the direction of current in the conductor.

 

Q.14 Describe the principle, construction and working of electric motor.

Ans. Electric Motor:- An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. A common electric motor works on direct current, so it is also known as D.C motor. Electric motor is used in electric fans, washing machines, refrigerators etc.

Principle:- A motor works on the principle that when  rectangular coil carrying current is placed in magnetic field, a force acts on the coil which rotates it continuously.

Construction and working of Motor (D.C motor):- An electric motor (D.C. motor) consists of a reactangular coil frame ABCD. It is called armature. The armature can freely rotate about a spindle or shaft in the space between the two poles N and S of a horse-shoe type permanent magnet M. The two ends of the coil ABCD are welded permanently to the two half rings S1 and S2 which acts as a commutator. The function of a commutator ring is to reverse the direction of current flowing through the coil after every half rotation of the coil. Two carbon brushes P and Q are made to slightly pressed against the two half rings by means of springs and are joined to a battery (B), rheostat (Rh) and a switch (K).

      When an electric current is passed through the coil ABCD, the magnetic field pushes the side CD down and AB up (according to left-hand rule). This means the coil rotates clock-wise. At half rotation, the polarity of the commutator changes since now it is S1 which contacts the brush P and S2 contacts with Q. this reversal pushes AB down and CD. In this way, a continues rotator motion is produced and electric motor is obtained.

 

Q.15 Define electromagnetic induction.

Ans. Electromagnetic Induction:- The phenomenon of production of electricity from magnetism is known as electromagnetic induction.

   e.g. When a straight wire is moved up and down rapidly between the two poles of a horse shoe magnet, then electric current is placed in the wire.

Q. 16 What is an electric fuse? What is its importance?

Ans. Electric Fuse:– A fuse is a safety device having a short length of a thin wire made of tin-lead alloy (75% of lead and 25% of tin) having low melting point (near 200C0), which melts and breaks the circuit if the current exceeds a safe value.

         An electric fuse works on the heating effect of current and is connected in series in the electric circuits.

  An electric fuse is a very important device as it prevents damage to various electrical appliances in the house due to excessive current flowing through them.

Q.17 Define: (a). Alternating Current (A.C)    (b). Direct Current (D.C)

Ans. (a). Alternating Current (A.C):- An electric current which changes its direction (i.e. polarity) after equal intervals of time is called alternating current.

        In India, the frequency of A.C is 50 Hz.

(b). Direct Current (D.C):- An electric current which always flows in the same direction is called direct current. The polarities (+ve and -ve) of d.c. are fixed. E.g. The current supplied by a cell or battery is D.C.

              

                       A.C current                                                  D.C current

Q.18 What is an electromagnet? Give its uses.

Ans. Electromagnet:- An electric current can be used for making temporary magnets known as electromagnets. An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet and consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron core.

     To make an electromagnet, take a rod AB of soft iron and wind a coil of insulated copper wire around it. When an electric current is passed by connecting both the ends of copper wire to a battery, an electromagnet is formed.

     The strength of electromagnet depends on:

(i). The number of turns of coil. The strength of an electromagnet increases on increasing the number of turns in the coil.

(ii). The current flowing in the coil. The strength of an electromagnet increases, if the current in the coil is increased.

Uses of Electromagnets:-

1. These are used in electrical devices like an electric bell, an electric fan, an electric motor or generator etc.

2. For lifting and transporting large masses of iron in the form of girders.

3. In medical practices for removing pieces of iron from wounds.

 

Q.19 What is a permanent magnet? Give its uses.

Ans. Permanent Magnet:- A permanent magnet is made from steel. As steel has more resistivity than iron, it does not lose its magnetism easily.

      To make a permanent magnet, a steel  bar is placed inside a solenoid and current is switched on and off several times, but not for a long time. On removing and testing the bar, it is found to be magnetized (i.e. formed a permanent magnet.)

  Permanent magnets are usually made of alloys such as carbon steel, chromium steel, cobalt steel and alnico (Al, Ni, Co & Fe).

Uses: Permanent magnets are used in:

1. electric meters such as galvanometers, voltmeters, ammeters, speedometers etc.

2. micro-phones and loud-speakers

3. electric clocks.

 

Q.20 Distinguish between electromagnet and permanent magnet.

Ans.

  

Electromagnet	Permanent Magnet
1. An electromagnet is a temporary magnet as its magnetism is for the duration of current passing through it.   2. It can produce a very strong magnetic force.   3. The strength of an electromagnet can be changed by changing the number of turns in its coil or changing the current.   4. Its polarity can be changed by changing the direction of current in its coil.	1. The bar magnet is a permanent magnet.     2. It produces a weak force of attraction.   3. The strength of a permanent magnet can not be changed.     4. Its polarity is fixed and can not be changed.

Q.21 What is meant by:

           (a). Short-Circuiting            (b). Overloading

Ans.(a). Short-Circuiting:–  when the plastic insulation of the live wire and the neutral wire gets torn, then the two wires touch each other. This touching of the live wire and neutral wire directly is known as short-circuit.

   Short-circuiting occurs due to:

(i). damage to the insulation of power lines.

(ii). a fault in electric appliance due to which current do not pass through it.

 (b). Overloading:- The current in a circuit depends upon the rating of the appliances connected to it. The choice of wires depends upon the maximum current estimated to pass through them. If the total power rating of the appliance exceeds this permitted limit, they tend to draw a large current. This is known as overloading.

 

Q.22 What is meant by “Earthing”? Why is it done?

Ans. Earthing:- Earthing means to connect the metal case of electrical appliance to the earth (zero potential) by means of a metal wire called earth wire.

   Earthing is done to avoid the risk of electric shocks and thus helps to save ourselves.

 

Q.23 Advantages of parallel wiring…………… See answer in “Electricity”

Q.24. Disadvantages of series wiring ………… See answer in “Electricity”

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1. Light-Reflection and Refraction

Q.1 Define light. What is its nature?

Ans. Light:- light is a form of energy which causes in us the sensation of sight. Light travels in a straight line path but when the size of an opaque object becomes very small, it has a tendency to bend around it.

        Light has a dual nature i.e. wave nature as well as particle nature.

 

Q.2 What is a plane mirror? What are the characteristics of an image formed in a plane mirror?

Ans. Plane Mirror:- A thin, flat and smooth sheet of glass having coating of silver metal on one side is called a plane mirror. The silver coating is protected by a red paint. E.g. the mirror in our homes in which we see our face is a plane mirror.

Characteristics of a Plane Mirror:-

1. The image formed in a plane mirror is always virtual.

2. The image formed in a plane mirror is always erect.

3. The size of image formed in a plane mirror is always same as that of the object

4. The image formed in a plane mirror is at the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

5. The image formed in a plane mirror is laterally inverted (or sideways reversed).

Uses of plane mirror:–

I.  Plane mirrors are used to see ourselves.

ii. These are fitted on the inside walls of certain shops (like jewellery shops) to make them look bigger.

iii.  These are fitted at blind turns of some busy roads to see the vehicles coming from the other side.

iv. Plane mirrors are used in making periscopes.

Q.3 What is meant by reflection of light? What are the laws of reflection of light?

Ans. Reflection of light:– When a beam of light is incident on a plane surface, a part of it is returned back into the same medium. This process of sending back of light rays which falls on the surface of an object is called reflection of light.

Laws of Reflection:- The reflection of light from a plane surface or from a spherical surface takes place according to two laws which are known as laws of reflection. There are two laws of reflection as:

 1. Ist Law:- It states that, “The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane at the point of incidence”.

 e.g. In fig. the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane of paper. Neither of the two rays or normal goes down into the paper or comes out of the paper.

 2. 2^nd Law:-  It states that ,”The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection”.

  e.g. If ∟PON = ∟i  is the angle of incidence

 and     ∟QON = ∟r  is the angle of reflection,

then,

          ∟i = ∟r

 

Q.4 What is an image? What are real and inverted images?

Ans. Image:- The optical appearance produced when light rays coming from an object are reflected from the mirror (or refracted from the lens) is known as image.

e.g. When we look into a mirror, we see the image of our face.

Images are of two types as:

a. Real Images:- Those images which can be projected on a screen are called real images.

e.g. The images of actors or actresses projected on a cinema screen are real images.

b. Virtual Images:- Those images which cannot be projected on a screen are called virtual images.

e.g. The image of our face in a plane mirror cannot be obtained on a screen, so it is a virtual image.

 

Q.5 Distinguish between real and virtual images.

Ans.   

Real Image	Virtual Image
1 These images can be projected on a screen. 2. These are formed when reflected rays (or refracted rays) actually meets.   3. These are always inverted.	1. These images cannot be projected on a screen. 2. These are formed when reflected rays (or refracted rays) appears to meet. 3. These are always erect.

 

Q.6 What is a spherical mirror? What are its types?

Ans. Spherical Mirror:- A spherical mirror is a surface forming  part of hollow sphere of glass whose one side is coated with silver, so that reflection takes place from the other side.

         Spherical mirrors are of two types as:

I. Concave mirror.

II. Convex mirror.

I. Concave mirror:- A spherical mirror is said to be concave, if it is silvered on outer curved surface and the reflection takes place from the inner hallow surface.

 e.g. The inner bent side of a shining spoon is an example of a concave mirror.

    This type of mirror is also known as converging mirror.

II. Convex Mirror:- A spherical mirror is said to be convex, if it is silvered on inner hallow surface and the reflection takes place from the outer curved surface.

 e.g. back side of shining spoon is an example of a convex mirror.

   This type of mirror is also known as diverging mirror.

 

                     

Q.7 Define the following terms with reference of a spherical mirror:

       i. Pole ii. Centre of curvature   iii. Radius of curvature  iv. Principal axis

       v.Aperture.

Ans.

  i. Pole:- The mid point (P) of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is called pole of the mirror and is denoted by ‘P’.

 ii. Centre of Curvature:- The centre of hollow sphere of glass of which mirror is a part is called centre of curvature. It is denoted by ‘C’

iii. Radius of curvature:- The radius of hollow sphere of glass of which a mirror is a part is known as radius of curvature. It is denoted by ‘R’.

iv. Principal axis:- The straight line passing through the centre of curvature (C) and pole (P) of a spherical mirror is called principal axis.

v. Aperture:- That portion of a spherical mirror from which the reflection of light takes place is called the aperture of the mirror.

 

             

 

 

 

Q.8 Define principal focus and focal length of a spherical mirror.

Ans.

Principal Focus:- The point where a beam of light coming parallel to principal axis actually converges (in case of a concave mirror) or appears to diverge from (in case of a convex mirror) after reflection from the spherical mirror on the principal axis is called principal focus or focus of the mirror.

Focal Length:– The distance between the principal focus and the pole of the mirror is called the focal length. It is denoted by ‘f’.

 

Q.9 Prove that the focal length of a spherical mirror is the half the radius of curvature.

                                                        OR

Derive the relationship between focal length and radius of curvature of a spherical mirror.

Ans. Take a mirror ‘MM`’ and consider a ray of light AB parallel to principal axis, falling on the mirror at B. The ray after reflection passes through the focus ‘F’.

   Join B and centre of curvature. Let CB be the normal on the mirror at B.

Now, according to 2^nd law of reflection:

 Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

ð∟ABC = ∟CBF …………….(1)

Also   ∟ABC = ∟BCF …………….(2)        (Alt. int. angles)

      From (1) and  (2), we get

          ∟CBF = ∟BCF

ð∆BCF isosceles

ðCF = BF  ……………………(3)

Now, if the aperture of the mirror is very small, point B lies very close to the pole ‘P’ then

      PF = BF ……………………….(4)

   From (3) and (4), we get

           PF = CF

Since, PC = PF + CF

ðPC = PF = PF  (.: PF = CF)

ðPC = 2PF

ðR = 2f

ðF = R/2

Hence, focal length is half the radius of curvature.                         

             

 

Q.10 State the rules for obtaining images formed by concave mirrors.

Ans. An image is formed at that point where at least two reflected rays meets or appears to meet.

 For concave mirrors, following rules are used:

Rule 1^st:- A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror, passes through its focus after reflection from the mirror.

 

               

Rule 2^nd:- A ray of light passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror is reflected back along the same path.

 Rule 3^rd:- A ray of light passing through the focus of a concave mirror becomes parallel to the principal axis after reflection.

Rule 4^th:- A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a concave mirror is reflected back making the same angle with the principal axis.

 

Q.11 With the help of diagrams, discuss the position, nature and size of the images formed by a concave mirror?

Ans.The nature, position and size of an image formed by a concave mirror depends upon the its distance from the mirror. An object can be placed at the following positions:

1. Between pole (P) and Focus (F):- when an object is placed between the pole (P) and focus (F) of a concave mirror, the image formed is:

  a. behind the mirror

  b. virtual and erect

  c. highly magnified

2. At Focus (F):- When the object (AB) is placed at the focus of a concave mirror, the image formed is:

  a. at infinity

  b. real and inverted

  c. highly magnified

 

                                      

3. Between focus (F) and centre of curvature(C):- When the object is placed between the focus and the centre of curvature, the image formed is:

  a. beyond the centre of curvature

  b. real and inverted

  c. larger than the object           

                                     

4. At the centre of curvature (c):- When the object is placed at the centre of curvature (C), the image formed is:

  a. at the centre of curvature

  b. real and inverted

  c. same size as the object

5. Beyond the centre of curvature:- When the object is placed beyond the centre of curvature, the image formed is:

  a. between focus (F) and centre of curvature

  b. real and inverted

  c. diminished

6. At infinity:- When the object is placed at infinity, the image formed is:

  a. at focus (F)

  b. real and inverted

  c. highly diminished

 

Q.12 List some uses of a concave mirror.

Ans.  Uses of a concave mirror:- Some important uses of a concave mirror are as:

i. Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors because these can form erect and magnified image of the face.

ii. These are used as reflectors in torches, vehicle head lights and search lights to powerful beam of light.

iii. These are used by doctors to concentrate light on body parts like ears and eyes which are to be examined.

iv. These are used by dentists to observe large images of teeth of patients.

v. Large concave mirrors are used in solar heating devices like solar cookers, solar furnaces etc.

vi. Large concave mirrors are used in reflecting type telescopes.

 

Q.13 State the rules for obtaining images formed by convex mirrors.

Ans. Rules for convex mirrors:- These are as:

Rule 1^st:- A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a convex mirror appears to be coming from its focus after reflection.

 

Rule 2^nd:- A ray of light going towards the centre of curvature of a convex mirror is reflected back along the same path.

Rule 3^rd:- A ray of light which is going towards the focus of a convex mirror becomes parallel to the principal axis after reflection.

 

Rule 4^th:- A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a convex mirror is reflected back making the same angle with the principal axis.

Q.14 Discuss the position, nature and size of the image formed by a convex mirror.

Ans. In case of a convex mirror, an object can be placed at the following two main positions:

1. Anywhere between pole (P) and infinity:- When the object is placed anywhere between pole and infinity, the image formed is:

a. behind the mirror between pole and focus

b. virtual and erect

c. diminished

2. At infinity:- when the object is at infinity, the image formed is:

a. behind the mirror at focus

b. virtual and erect

c. highly diminished.

        

Q.15 List some uses of convex mirrors.

Ans. Uses of convex mirrors:- are as:

 i. A convex mirror is used as a reflector in street lamps as it diverges light over a large area.

 ii. A convex mirror is used as a rear view mirror in vehicles to see the traffic behind.

 

Q.16 Why does a driver prefer to use a convex mirror as a back view mirror in automobiles?

Ans. A driver prefers to use a convex mirror as a rear view mirror because:

 a. it always produces an erect image.

 b. the image formed is very diminished due to which it gives a wide field of view.

 

Q.17 What are the New Cartesian Sign Conventions for spherical mirrors?

Ans. New Cartesian Sign Conventions:- New Cartesian sign conventions are used for measuring various distances in the ray-diagram of spherical mirrors.

   According to new Cartesian conventions:

i. All the distances are measured from the pole as origin.

ii. The distances measured in the same direction as that of incident light are taken as positive.

iii. The distances measured against the direction of incident light are taken as negative.

iv. Heights measured in upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive.

v. Heights measured in downwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.

     Generally, the direction of incident ray of light is taken from left to right. In such a case, the distances measured from pole to the right is positive and to the left is negative.

Conclusions:-

 1. An object is always placed to the left side of the mirror. Thus, the object distance (u) is always negative.

 2. The image formed by a concave mirror can be either behind the mirror or in front of it. So, the image distance (v) for a concave mirror can either be positive or negative and vice versa.

 3. In case of a convex mirror, the image is always formed on the right side. So, the image distance (v) for a convex mirror is always positive.

 4. The focal length of a concave mirror is always negative while that of a concave mirror is always is always positive.

 5. The object is always placed above the principal axis and in the upward direction. So, the object height (h₁) is always positive.

 6. If the image is formed above the principal axis, then it is taken as positive while if it is formed below the principal axis then, it is taken as negative.

 

                 

Q.18 What is a mirror formula?

Ans. Mirror Formula:- A formula which gives us a relationship between image distance (v), object distance (u) and focal length (f) of a mirror is called a mirror formula.

        According to mirror formula:

1v+1u=1f

 While applying this formula, it should be noted that ‘u’ is always negative for both concave and convex mirrors, ‘f’ of a concave mirror is taken as negative while that of a convex mirror is taken as positive. If the image is real i.e. on the same side of the mirror ‘v’ is negative and if the image is virtual i.e. behind the mirror, ‘v’ is positive.

Q.19 What do you mean by linear magnification?

Ans. Linear Magnification:- The ratio of the height of image to the height of object is known as linear magnification. It is denoted by ‘m’.

    i.e. Linear Magnification  =    Height of image

                                                        Height of object

ðm=h2h1

  Where h₂ = height of object

   And     h₁ = height of image.

  Linear magnification is also defined as the ratio of the image distance to the object distance with a negative sign.

  i.e. Linear magnification=
–Image distanceobject distance

  => m= –vu

Note:- The sign of ‘m’ will be determined always by the signs of h1, h2 ,v and u.

 

Problem 1. An object is placed at 60 cm from a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm. find the position and nature of the image formed.

Sol.

       Here, object distance (u) = -60 cm

       Focal length (f) = – 20 cm

       Let image distance = v cm.

Now, we know that

   1v+1u=1f

ð1v+1(-60)=1-20

ð1v=1-20+160

ð1v= 60-20-1200

ð1v=40-1200

ð1v=1-30

ðV = -30 cm.

Thus, the image is formed in front of mirror and its nature is real and inverted.

 

Problem 2. A concave mirror produces 3 times magnified real image of an object placed at a distance of 10 cm in front of it. Where is the image located?

Sol.

   Here, magnification (m) = -3

  Object distance (u) = -10 cm

  Image distance (v) = ?

We know that

            m= –vu 

ð-3= –v-10

ð-3=v10

ðv= -30 cm

Hence, the image is located at a distance of 30 cm in front of the mirror.

 

Problem 3. Find the focal length of a convex mirror of radius of curvature 1m.

Sol.

  Here, focal length (f) = ?

  Radius of curvature (R) = +1m

We know that

           f=R2

ðf=12 m

 Or f=0.5 m

 

Q.20 What do you mean by refraction of light? State the laws of refraction of light?

Ans. Refraction of light:- When a ray of light travels from one transparent medium to another, it bends from its original path at the boundary of separation. This phenomenon of bending of light when it travels from one transparent medium into another medium is called refraction of light.

  e.g. The refraction of light takes place when the light enters from air into glass or vice versa.

Cause of Refraction:- The basic cause of refraction of light is the change in speed of light in going from one medium into another medium. E.g. When a ray of light enter from air into glass, the speed of light decreases and vice versa.

Laws of Refraction:- The refraction of light on going from one medium into another medium takes place according to two laws which are known as laws of refraction of light. These are as:

Ist Law:- It states that, “The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface of separation of the media, all lie in the same plane.”

 e.g. In fig. the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane of paper.

2^nd Law:- It states that, “The ratio of sine of angle o incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for a given pair of media.”

  i.e. Sine
of angle of
incidenc��Sine of
angle of refraction=Constant

=> SiniSinr=n

 Where ‘n’ is a constant and is known as refractive index.

     The second law of refraction of light was discovered by Snell experimentally in 1621, so it is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.

 

                   

 

Q.21 Explain the refraction of light through a glass slab.

Ans. Refraction through a glass slab:- Consider a glass slab PQRS as shown n fig. Here, we have two media, air medium (rear medium) and glass medium (denser medium). Now, let a ray of light AO travelling in air is incident on the glass slab at the point ‘O’. As the glass slab is transparent, most of the incident light passes into it. Since glass slab is an optically denser medium than air, so when the ray of light AO passes from air into glass, its direction changes and goes along the path OO`. In this way, the refraction of light or bending f light takes place in the glass slab.

Q.23 Define rarer and denser media.

Ans. A transparent substance in which light travels is known as a medium. E.g. air, glass, water, etc.

Rarer Medium:- A medium in which the speed of light is more is known as optically rarer medium. E.g. Air (speed of light = 3×10⁸ m/sec) is optically rarer medium as compared to glass (speed of light = 2×10⁸ m/sec)

Denser Medium:- A medium in which the speed of light is less is known as optically denser medium. E.g. Water (speed of light = 2.25×10⁸ m/sec) is optically denser than air.

NOTE:- It has been found that:

  i. when a ray of light goes from rarer medium to denser medium, it bends towards the normal.

  ii. When a ray of light goes from denser medium to rarer medium, it bends away from normal.

 

Q.23 What are the necessary conditions for no refraction?

Ans. Conditions for no refraction:- No refraction takes place:

      i. Light ray falls normally (perpendicularly) to the surface of separation.

      ii. The refractive indices of two media are equal.

Q.24 Define refractive index. What is its unit?

Ans. Refractive Index:- The refractive index is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the  speed of light in a given medium.

  It is generally denoted by ‘n’.

i.e. Refractive Index=
speed of
light in air(or
vacuum)speed
of light
in a given
medium

=>  n=cv

  Where, C = 3×108 m/sec. is the speed of light in air or vacuum.

Refractive index has no units.

 

Q.25 The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. What does that mean?

Ans. By saying that the refractive index of diamond is 2.42, it means that the ratio of the speed of light in air (or vacuum) to the speed of light in diamond is 2.42.

 

Problem 4. Speed of light in glass is 2×10⁸ m/sec. Calculate its refractive index?

Sol.

   Here, speed of light in glass (v) = 2×10⁸ m/sec.

Now, we know that

 Refractive index, n=CV

ðn=3×108
m/sec2×108 m/sec

ðn=32

ðn=1.5

Hence, refractive index of glass is 1.5

 

Problem 5: Calculate the refractive index of air, if the speed of light in air is 2.9970×10⁸ m/sec and that in vacuum is 2.9979×10⁸ m/sec.

Ans. Try yourself                        Ans. 1.0003

Q.26 Explain why a stick when partially immersed in water appears to be bent?

Ans. When a stick ABO is partially immersed in water and held obliquely to the surface, it appears bent due to the refraction of light.

Let O be the lower end point of the stick immersed in water and also let two rays OC and OD coming from ‘O’ in water in straight line paths until they reach the surface of water. When the ray of light ‘OC’ enters into air, it gets refracted and bends away from the normal in the direction CX. Similarly, OD get refracted at D and bends away from the normal & goes in the direction DY. When the two refracted rays CX & CY are produced backwards, these appears to meet at point ‘I’ near the surface of water forming a virtual image of ‘O’. similarly, every point on the immersed part of OB of the stick appears to be lying along BI and thus, that is why stick appears bent in the direction of ‘BI’ instead of ‘BO’.

                      

Home Work:

Q.1 Explain why a pool of water appears to e less deep than it actually is?

Q.2 Why a object (coin) placed under water appears to be raised?

Ans. Hint                                   Due to refraction of light.

LENSES

Q.27 What is a lens? What are its types?

Ans. Lens:- A piece of transparent glass which is bounded by two spherical surfaces is known as a lens.

  Spherical lenses are of two types:

         1. Convex lens.          2. Concave lens.

1. Convex Lens:- A convex is thicker at the centre and thinner at the edges. It is also known as converging lens.

2. Concave Lens:- A concave lens is thinner at the centre and thicker at the edges. It is also known as diverging lens.

Q.28 Distinguish between convex lens and concave lens.

Ans.

Convex Lens	Concave Lens
1. It is thicker at the centre but thinner at the edges. 2. Its focal length if positive. 3. It converges light rays. 4. It may form real as well as virtual images.	1. It is thinner at the centre and thicker at the edges. 2. Its focal length is negative. 3. It diverges light rays. 4. It always forms the real images.

 

Q.29 Define the following terms:

      i.    Optical Centre        ii.  Principal Axis

      iii.  Principal Focus       iv. Focal Length.

Ans.

i. Optical Centre:-The centre point of a lens is known as its optical centre. It is denoted by ‘O’

ii. Principal axis:- The line passing through the optical centre of a lens and perpendicular to both the faces of the lens is known as principal axis.

Iii. Principal focus:- The principal focus of a lens is a point on its principal axis to which the light rays parallel to the principal axis converges (in case of a convex lens ) or appears to diverge (in case of a concave lens).

iv. Focal length:- The distance between the optical centre and focus of the lens is called focal length.

 

Q.30 State the rules for obtaining images formed by convex lens.

Ans. An image is formed at that point where at least two refracted light rays meets or appears to meet.

Rule 1: A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens passes through its focus after refraction through the lens.

Rule 2: A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens goes straight without any deviation through the lens.

Rule 3: A ray of light passing through the focus of a convex lens becomes parallel to its principal axis after refraction through the lens.

 

Q.31 Discuss the nature, position and size of the image formed  by a convex lens.

Ans. The position, nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens depends upon the position of the object. The object can be placed at the following positions:

1. Between optical centre (c) and Principal Focus(F1):- When the object is placed between optical centre and  principal focus(F1), the image formed is:

  a. Behind the object on the same side of the lens as the object is

  b. Virtual and erect

  c. highly magnified.

 

2. At focus(F1):- When the object is placed at focus (F1), the image formed is:

  a. at infinity

  b. real and inverted

  c. highly enlarged.

 

3. Between F1 and 2F1:- When the object is placed between F1 and 2F1, the image formed is:

  a. beyond 2F2

  b. real and inverted

  c. larger than the object.

 

 

 

4. At 2F1:- When the object is placed at 2F1, the image formed is:

  a. at 2F2

  b. real and inverted

  c. same size as that of the object.

 

5. Beyond 2F1:- When the object is placed beyond 2F1, the image formed is:

  a. between F2 and 2F2.

  b. real and inverted.

  c. smaller than the object.

6. At infinity:- When the object is placed at infinity of the convex lens, the image formed is:

  a. at focus (F2).

  b. real and inverted.

  c. highly diminished.

Q.32 State the rules for obtaining images formed by a concave lens.

Ans.

Rule 1: A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a concave lens, appears to be coming from its focus after refraction through the lens.

Rule 2: A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a concave lens goes straight after passing through the lens.

Rule 3: A ray of light going towards the focus of a concave lens becomes parallel to the principal axis after refraction through the lens.

Q.33 What is the position, nature and size of the image formed by a concave lens?

Ans. In case of a concave lens, the object can be placed at the following two positions:

1. Anywhere between optical centre(O) and infinity:- When an object is placed anywhere between optical centre(o) and infinity of a convex lens, the iage formed is:

  a. Between optical centre (O) and focus (F).

  b. Virtual and erect.

  c. Smaller than the object.

2. At infinity:- When the object is moved more and more away from the optical centre of the concave lens, the image becomes smaller and smaller in size and moves away from the lens towards focus. And when the object is at infinity, the image formed is:

  a. At focus.

  b. virtual and erect.

  c. highly diminished.

 

Q.34 What is meant by power of lens?

Ans. Power of Lens:-  We know that, when a ray of light passes through a lens after refraction, in general, it bends from its path. The extent of bending depends upon the focal length of the lens. It is found that smaller the focal length, greater is the capacity of the lens to bend the rays of light.

  This property of a lens which determines the extent to which it can bend the rays of light passing through it, is called the power of lens. Power of lens is also defined as  the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens (in meters).

 i.e.  Power of
lens=1Focal length
(in meters) 

=> P=1f

The S.I. unit of power of lens is dioptre which is denoted by ‘D’

NOTE:- The power of a concave lens is negative and that of a convex lens is positive.

Dioptre:- One dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is one meter.

Problem 6:- A convex lens is of focal length 10 cm. what is its power?

Sol.

  Here, focal length (f) = 10 cm = 10100m = 110m

Now, we know that

            P=1/f

ðP = 1110

ðP = 10 D

Hence, power of lens is 10D.

Q.35 Write down the:

          a. Lens formula

          b. Magnification formulae for concave and convex lenses.

Ans.

 a. Lens Formulae:- The lens formula for both concave and convex lenses is:

           1v–1u=1f

 Where, v = image distance

                U = object distance

And         f = focal length.

 

b. Magnification formulae:- The magnification formulae for spherical lenses (concave and convex) are as:

 i. m=h2h1

  Where, h2 = image height

  And       h1 = object height.

ii.  m=vu

    where, v = image distance

       and     u = object distance.

 

Q.36 What are the New Cartesian Sign Conventions for spherical lenses?

Ans. New Cartesian Sign Conventions:- New Cartesian sign conventions are used for measuring various distances in the ray-diagram of spherical lenses.

   According to new Cartesian sign conventions:

i. All the distances are measured from the optical centre as origin.

ii. The distances measured in the same direction as that of incident light are taken as positive.

iii. The distances measured against the direction of incident light are taken as negative.

iv. Heights measured in upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive.

v. Heights measured in downwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.

     Generally, the direction of incident ray of light is taken from left to right. In such a case, the distances measured from optical centre to the right is positive and to the left is negative.

Conclusions:-

 1. An object is always placed to the left side of the lens. Thus, the object distance (u) is always negative.

 2. The image formed by a convex lens can be either behind the lens or infront of it. So, the image distance (v) for a convex lens can either be positive or negative and vice versa.

 3. In case of a concave lens, the image is always formed on the left side. So, the image distance (v) for a concave lens is always negative.

 4. The focal length of a concave mirror is always negative while that of a concave mirror is always is always positive.

 5. The object is always placed above the principal axis and in the upward direction. So, the object height (h₁) is always positive.

 6. If the image is formed above the principal axis, then it is taken as positive while if it is formed below the principal axis then, it is taken as negative.

 

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3.Electricity-Full

Q.1 Give the concept of electric charge briefly.

Ans. Concept Of Electric Charge:– Electric charge  or charge, like mass is a fundamental property of matter. We know that, when two substances are rubbed with each other they attain a property of attracting small bits of paper or straw etc. Acquiring this attractive power on rubbing by the two bodies are said to have become electrified or acquire electric charges.

e.g. If a comb is brought near some tiny pieces of paper, it does not attracts them, but on rubbing first with hair, it starts attracting them towards itself. This implies that, initially, the comb is electrically neutral so it does not attract tiny pieces of paper but on rubbing, it gets electric charges and thus attracts them.

  The S.I. Unit of electric charge is Coulomb and is denoted by ‘C’.

     1C  =  6.25×10¹⁸ electrons

 

Q.2 What are the two types of electric charges?

Ans. Types of Electric Charges:– It has been found by experiments that there are two types of electric charges-positive and negative charges. The charge carried by a proton is positive while that carried by an electron is negative. A body gets positively charged if it loses electrons and negatively charged if it gains electrons. E.g. When a rod is rubbed with silk, it loses electrons and thus becomes positively charged while silk on other hand gains an equal number of electrons and thus becomes negatively charged. A proton possess a positive charge of 1.6×10^-19 C while as an electron possess a negative charge of 1.6×10^-19 C

 

Q.3 List some properties of Electric charges.

Ans. Properties of Electric Charges:- Some properties of electric charge are as:

 

1. Like charges repels each other while unlike charges attracts each other.

2. Electric charge is conserved i.e. it can neither be created nor destroyed.

3. The force (F) between two charges varies directly as the product of two charges (q₁ & q₂) and inversely proportional as the square of the distance (r) between them.

   i.e.

            q₁   x  q₂

  F α   ───────

                r²

                    

        q₁  x  q₂

ðF = k  ──────

             r²

 Where k = constant of proportionality.

 

4.Electric charge is quantized. By quantization, we mean that the charge (Q) on any body is integral multiple of electronic charge i.e.

 

                   Q    =  ne

   Where n = ±1, ±2, ±3,……….

                e = 1.6×10^-19 C

5. Electric charge is additive i.e. total charge is the algebraic sum of the individual charges.

 

Q.4 Define electric potential and potential difference?

Ans. Electric Potential:- The amount of work done when a unit positive charge is brought from infinity to a given point in an electric field is called electric potential or potential.

  The electric potential energy per unit charge is also electric potential.

 

                                       Electric potential energy

 :. Electric Potential = ──────────────────────

                                                   Charge

Its unit is Volt and is denoted by ‘V’

 

Potential difference:- The potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work done in taking a unit positive charge from one point to another against the electric field.

 The difference in electric potential between two points is known as potential difference.

 

 :. Potential difference = Work doneQuantity of charge moved

ð  V  = WQ

  Where, W  =  work done

   And       Q  =   Quantity 0f charge moved

   The S.I. unit of potential difference is volt and is denoted by ‘V’. It is measured by an instrument called voltmeter.

 

Q.5 Define coulomb and volt.

Ans. Coulomb:- One coulomb is that quantity of electric which exerts a force of 9×10¹⁰ Newton on an equal charge placed at a distance of 1 meter from it.

Volt:- One volt is the potential difference between two points in an electric field when one joule of work must be done to move one coulomb of charge between the two points.

 

  i.e. 1 Volt  = 1
joule1
coulomb

ð1 V  = 1 J/C

 

Q.6 Define electric current. What is its S.I. unit?

Ans. Electric Current:- The ordered motion of electric charges (called electrons) in a conductor is known as electric current. The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a conductor is called the strength of a current or magnitude of current.

  If ‘Q’ coulombs be the charge flowing across any cross-section of a conductor in time ‘t’ seconds, then the current (I) is given by

      I=Qt

  The S.I. unit of electric current is Ampere and is denoted by ‘A’.

  It is measured by an instrument called ammeter.

 

 

Q.7 Define ampere.

Ans. Ampere:-  We know that

      I=Qt

   Where Q = coulombs of electric charge.

     And    t = time.

     If Q = 1C

     &  t = 1 sec.

 Then,  I = 1C/1sec.

ðI = 1 C/sec.

ðI = 1 A

Hence, current flowing through a conductor is said to be one ampere if one coulomb of charge flows through it in one second.

 

Q.7 Explain briefly how the electric charges flows in a wire?

Ans.  We know that a metallic conductor has a plenty of free electrons in it and these free electrons move at random in all directions within the conductor. But, when the ends of the conducting wire are connected to a source (cell or battery) these free electrons starts moving from positive end to the negative end. This flow of electrons constitutes electric current in the wire. The average speed with which the electrons move (or drift) in a wire having potential difference across its ends, is called the drift speed.  See fig. below

 

 

Q.8 What is the conventional direction of the flow of electric current?

Ans. Direction of Electric Current:- By convention, the direction of electric current is taken as the direction of flow of positive charges from a point at a higher potential to a point at  a lower potential. However, in metallic conductors negative electrons move not the positive charges. The flow of electrons is in the direction opposite to that in which the conventional current flows.

 

Q.9  State Ohm’s law. How will you verify it experimentally?

Ans. Ohm’s Law:– Ohm’s law gives a relationship between electric current and potential difference. According to this law, “ At constant physical conditions like temperature etc., the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends.”

  If ‘I’ is the current flowing through a conductor and ‘V’ is the potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm’s law:

 

      I α V

ðV α I

ðV = I x R

   Where ‘R’ is a constant and is called the resistance of the conductor whose value depends on size, nature of the material and temperature of the conductor.

Experimental verification of Ohm’s Law:- To verify Ohm’s law, let us take a conductor XY whose ends are connected to a voltmeter (V). Also connect an ammeter (A), battery (B), Key (K) and rheostat (Rh) as shown in the fig.

   

       

 

  Now, press the key (k), a current starts flowing in the whole circuit including the conductor ‘R’. Note the current ‘I’ in the circuit by the ammeter and the potential difference (v) across the ends of a conductor by voltmeter. By changing the current with the help of rheostat, take several readings of current as well as potential difference. Now on calculating value of V/ I for all the readings, we observe that each time the ratio of potential difference and current is constant. This verifies Ohm’s law.

    If a graph between potential difference readings and corresponding current readings is drawn, we will get a straight line graph which shows that the current is proportional to the potential difference. This also verifies Ohm’s law.

 

                                               

 

Q.9 What do you mean by resistance of a conductor?  What is its S.I. unit?

Ans. Resistance:- The electric current is a flow of electrons through a conductor. When the electrons move from one part of the conductor to other part, they collide with each other and with other atoms & ions within the conductor. Due to these collisions, there is some obstruction or opposition to the flow of current through the conductor. The property of a conductor due to which it opposes the flow of current through it, is called resistance of the conductor.

    The ratio of the potential difference across its ends to the strength of the current flowing through it, is called the resistance.

 

   i.e. R = VI

The S.I. unit of resistance is Ohm and is denoted by ‘Ω’

 

Q.10 Define Ohm.

Ans.  We know that

           R = V/I

If  V = 1 volt

&  I =  1 ampere,

Then,   R  =  1V /1A

ðR  =  1 V/A

ðR  =  1 Ohm

ðR  =  1 Ω

 Hence, the resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm if a current of one ampere flows through it when a potential difference of one volt is applied across its ends.

 

Q.11 On what factors does the electrical resistance of a conductor depends?

Ans. The electrical resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors:

1. Length of a conductor:- It has been found by experiments that the resistance of a wire increases on increasing its length and decreases by decreasing its length. In other words, the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length.

         i.e. R  α  l

   Where l is the length of conductor.

      From the above relation, it is clear that if the length of the wire is doubled, its resistance gets doubled and if it is halved, its resistance also gets halved.

2. Area of Cross-Section:- It has been found by experiments that the resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.

       I.e.  R α 1A

 Where A = area of cross-section

   From the above relation, it is clear that if the area of cross-section of the wire is doubled, its resistance gets halved and vice-versa.

3. Temperature of the conductor:- It has been found by experiments that the resistance of all pure metals increases on increasing the temperature and decreases on lowering the temperature. But, the resistance of alloys like nichrome, constantan, etc is almost unaffected by temperature.

4. Nature of the material:– The electrical resistance of a conductor depends on the nature of the material of which it is made. Some materials have low resistances where as others have high resistances. e.g. In copper metal and nichrome wire with equal lengths and diameters, nichrome alloy has more (60 times) resistance than the copper metal.

 

Q.12 What do you mean by resistivity? What is its S.I. unit?

Ans. We know that

  R α I                                ①

       Where ‘l’ is the length of the conductor.

Also,

 R α 1A                                   ②

      Where, A = area of cross-section.

From ① and ②, we get

    R  =  lA

ð R  = plA

Where p (rho) is a constant and is known as resistivity of the conductor.

Resistivity is also known as specific resistance.

 If A = 1m², l=1m.

Then,  R = px11

ðR = p

Hence resistivity is the resistance of that substance which is 1m in length and 1m² in cross-section (thickness).

The S.I. unit of resistivity is Ohm-meter denoted by Ω m.

 

Q.13 Derive the formula for the equivalent resistances of three resistors connected in series.

Ans. Resistances connected in series:- When two or more resistances are connected end to end consecutively, they are said to be connected in series. In this case, the total resistance increases.

  Let R₁, R₂, and R₃ be three resistors connected in series and V₁, V₂, and V₃ be the potential differences across these resistances. If ‘V’ be the potential difference due to battery, then

     V = V₁ + V₂ + V₃                       ①

Let the current ‘I’ flows through the conductor whose combined resistance is ‘R’,

Then by the Ohm’s law, we have

     V  =  I R

Again applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have

    V₁  = I R₁

  V₂  =  I R₂

  V₃  =  I R₃

Substituting the values of  V, V₁, V₂ and V₃ in ①, we get

      I R  = I R₁ + I R₂ + I R₃

ðI R = I x (R₁ + R₂ + R₃)

ðR = R₁ + R₂ + R₃

Hence, equivalent resistance R is equal to the sum of individual resistances R₁, R₂ and R₃ connected in series.

Q.13 Derive the formula for the equivalent resistances of three resistors connected in parallel.

Ans. Resistances connected in parallel:- When two are more  resistances are connected between the same two points, they are said to be connected in parallel. In this case, the total resistance decreases.

   Let R₁, R₂ and R₃ be the three resistors connected in parallel, V is the potential difference across the ends of each conductor and I₁, I₂ and I₃ are currents flowing through these resistances respectively. Let R be the equivalent resistance, then

   I = I₁ + I₂ + I₃                           ①

According to Ohm’s law

     V = I R

ðI = VR 

Similarly, applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we get

 I₁= VR1

 I₂ = VR2

 I₃ = VR3

Substituting the values of I, I₁, I₂ and I₃ in① , we get

        VR=VR1+VR2+VR3

ðV1R=V(1R1+1R2+1R3)

ð1R=1R1+1R2+1R3

Thus, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistances is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances when connected in parallel.

Q.14 What are the disadvantages of series circuits for domestic wiring?

Ans. In domestic circuits, series arrangement is not used because of the following disadvantages:

1. If one of the appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other appliances also stops working.

2. All the appliances have only one switch due to which they con not be turned on or off separately.

3. All the appliances do not get the same voltage (220V) as that of power supply line because the voltage is shared by all the appliances.

4. The overall resistance of the circuit increases due to which the current from the power is low.

 

Q.15 What are the advantages of parallel circuits in domestic wiring?

Ans. In domestic wiring, parallel combination is used because of the following advantages:

1. In parallel circuits, if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other appliances keep working normally.

2. In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be turned on or off independently, without affecting other appliances.

3. In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance gets the same voltage (220V ) as that of the power supply.

4. In parallel combination, the overall resistance of the household circuit is reduced due to which the current from the power supply is high.

Q.16 Define electric power? What is its S.I unit?

Ans. Electric Power:- The rate at which electric work is done by an electric current is called electric power.

i.e. Electric Power = Electric
Work doneTime Taken 

or P=Wt

Electric power is also defined as the rate at which electrical energy is consumed.

 i.e. Power=Energy
consumedTime
taen

 The S.I. unit of electric power is watt.

Formulae for electric power:

 We know that

 Power=Work
doneTime
Taken 

ð P=Wt                     ①

Since the work done by current ‘I’ when it flows for time ‘t’ under a potential difference ‘v’ is given by

 W = V x I x t joules

Substituting this value in ①, we get

       P=V x I x tt

ðP=V x I watts

Q.17 Define electric energy. What is its commercial unit?

Ans. Electric Energy:– The total work done by a current in an electric circuit is called electric energy.

 We know that

 Electric Power=Work
doneTime
taken

Since, work done by
current=Electric energy consumed

:. Electric Power = electrical
energy consumedTime taken

Or Electrical Energy = Power x Time

ðE = P x t

 Hence, electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance is the product of its power rating and time for which it is used.

Commercial Unit of Energy:- The S.I. unit of electrical energy is Joule. Actually, joule represents a very small quantity of energy, so for commercial purposes a bigger unit called kilowatt-hour is used.

 One kilowatt- hour (kWh) is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical appliance having a power rating of 1 kilowatt is used for one hour.

:. 1 kilowatt-hour=1kilowatt
x 1 hour

ð1kwh= 1000watts x 1hour

ð1kwh = 1000 watts x 60 x 60 sec.

ð1kwh = 1000 J/sec. x 3600 sec.

ð1kwh = 3600000 Joules

ð1kwh = 3.6 x 10⁶ J

 

Q.18 What do you mean by heating effect of current?

Ans. Heating Effect of Current:- When an electric current is passed through a high resistance wire, it becomes very hot and produces heat. This is called the heating effect of current. The heating effect of current is obtained by the transformation of electrical energy into heat energy.

   Consider a resistance wire with resistance ‘R’ through which a current ‘I’ flows in time ‘t’ and let an electric charge ‘Q’ moves against a potential difference ‘V’, then

  Work done = Q x V                          ①

We know that

 Current, I = Q/t

ðQ = I x t

Also, from Ohm’s law, we have

      V = I x t

Substituting the values of Q and V in ①, we get

       W = I x t x I x R

ð  W = I² x R x t

But this work done = Heat Produced(H)

:. H = I² x R x t Joules

This is known as Joules law of heating. It is clear from the joules law of heating that heat produced is directly proportional to:

 a. time (t).

 b. Square of current (I²).

 c. resistance of wire (R).

 

Q.19 List some important applications of heating effect of current.

Ans. Some important applications of heating effect of current are as:

1. The heating effect of current is used in electrical appliances like electric iron, electric kettle, electric oven, room heaters etc.

2. The heating effect of current is used in electric bulbs for producing light.

3. The heating effect of current is used in electric fuse for protecting household wiring and other electrical appliances.

 

Numerical Problems

Problem 1: If four resistances, each of value 1 ohm, are connected in series, what will be the resultant resistance?

Sol.

    Here, R₁ = R₂ =R₃ = R₄ = 1 ohm.

Now, for resistances connected in series, we have

      R = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + R₄

ðR = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1

ðR = 4 Ohm

ðR = 4Ω

Hence, the resultant resistance is 4Ω

 

Problem 2:  Calculate the equivalent resistance when two resistances of 3 ohm and 6 ohm are connected in parallel.

Sol.

  Here, R₁ = 3 ohms   and   R₂ = 6 ohms.

Now for resistances connected in parallel, we have

  1R=1R1+1R2

ð1R=13+16

ð1R=2+16

ð1R=36

ð1R=12

ðR = 2Ω

Hence, equivalent resistance is 2 Ω.

 

Problem 3: What will be current drawn by an electric bulb of 40W when it is connected to a source of 220V ?

Sol.

 Here, Power (P) = 40watts,

  Voltage (V)  = 220Volt

Now, we know that

        P = V x I

ð40 = 220 x I

ðI=40220

ðI=0.18 ampere.

Hence, current drawn by electric bulb = 0.18 ampere.

 

Problem 4: A radio set of 60watts runs for 50 hours. How much electrical energy is consumed.

Sol.

  Here, Power (P) = 60watts = 601000 kilowatts = 0.06 kw.

And, Time (t) = 50 hrs.

 Now, we know that

  E = P x t

ðE = 0.06 x 50 = 3 kilowatt-hours

Hence, Electrical energy consumed by a radio set = 3 KWh.

 

Problem 5: A bulb is rated at 200V – 100W. Five such bulbs burn for 4 hours.

(a)What is the electrical energy consumed?

(b) Calculate the cost if the rate is Rs 4.60 per unit?

Sol.

 Here, Power (P) = 100watts = 1001000kilowatts=0.1kw

Voltage (V) = 200Volts 

&   Time (t) = 4 hrs.

(a).We know that

     E = P x t

ðE = 0.1 x 4 = 0.4 KWh

ðEnergy consumed by 1 bulb = 0.4 KWh

.: Energy consumed by 5 bulbs = 0.4 x 5 = 2 KWh.

Hence, total energy consumed = 2KWh = 2 units.

(b).

  Since cost of 1 unit of electricity = Rs. 4.60

.: Cost of 2 units of electricity = 4.60 x 2 = Rs 9.20

 

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2.Human Eye and Colorful World-Full

Q.1 Describe the construction and working of a human eye.

Ans. Human eye:-The human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs. It uses light and helps us to see the wonderful and colorful world. The eye is almost spherical in shape having a diameter of about 2.3cm.

Construction:- The main parts of a human eye are as:

 

1. Cornea:- The front of the eye is called cornea. It is made up of a transparent substance and is bulging outwards. It maintains the shape and size of the eye and protects its delicate inner structure. The light coming from the objects enters the eye through the cornea

2. Iris and Pupil:– Behind the cornea is a colored part called iris. It is a colored diaphragm which has a central circular opening called pupil. The pupil appears black because no light is reflectedfrom it. Pupil expands in dim light and contracts in bright day light.

3. Eye lens:- The eye lens is a convex lens made up of a transparent soft and flexible material like a jelly made of proteins. It forms a real and diminished image of an object on the screen (called retina).

4. Retina:- The screen on which the image is formed in the eye is called retina. It is located behind the eye lens and at the back part of the eye.

5. Ciliary Muscles:- The eye lens is held in the position by Ciliary muscles. By the action of Ciliary muscles, the focal length of the eye can be changed.

 

Working of Eye:- The light rays coming from the object kept in front of us enter the pupil of the eye and falls on the eye lens. The eye lens converges the light rays and produces a real and inverted image of the object on the retina. The image formed on the retina is conveyed to the brain by the optic nerve and thus this gives rise to the sensation of vision. Actually, the retina contains a large number of light sensitive cells which gets activated upon illumination and generate electric signals. These signals are then sent to brain via optic nerve. The brain interprets these signals and finally processes the information. The image on the retina is inverted, but our mind interprets the image as that of an erect image.

 

  

Q.2 Describe the function of Iris and pupil.

 Ans. The iris automatically adjusts the size of the pupil according the intensity of light received by the eye. If the amount of light received by the eye is high, then the pupil contracts and reduces the amount of light entering the eye. On the other hand, if the amount of light received by the eye is small, then the pupil expands to allow more light to enter the eye. Hence, the amount of light entering the eye can be controlled by the pupil of the eye.

 

Q.3 How do we see colors?

Ans. The retina of our eye has large number of light sensitive cells. These cells are of two types: rod shaped and cone shaped. The rod shaped cells respond to the intensity of light (or brightness of light) while the cone shaped cells respond to colors. So it is the cone shaped cells which makes us to distinguish between various colors.

 

Q.4 What is color blindness? What kind of retinal cells are lacking in a person suffering from this defect?

Ans. It is that defect of the eye due to which a person is unable to distinguish between certain colors. The color blinded person does not possess some cone shaped cells that responds to certain colors. It is genetic disorder and has not been cured so for.

 

Q.5 Why does it take some time to see objects in a dim room when we enter the room from bright sunlight?

Ans. The amount of light entering our eye is controlled by the pupil. When the intensity of light is more, pupil contracts and when the intensity is less, it expands. When we enter to a dim room from bright sunlight outside, less amount of light enters our due to narrow opening of pupil. Thus, we cannot see the object inside the dim room clearly at once, but gradually the pupil expands more and things start appearing normal.

 

Q.6 What do you mean by power of accommodation of eye?

Ans. A normal eye can focus the images of the distant as well as the nearby objects on its retina by changing the focal length of its lens. This ability of an eye to focus the distant as well as the nearby objects on the retina by changing the focal length of its lens is called accommodation.

   When the is looking at the distant object, the eye is said to be unaccommodated because it is the relaxed state of the eye while as when it is looking at a nearby object, the eye is said to be accommodated.

     A normal human eye can see the objects clearly which are lying anywhere between infinity to about 25cm. the power of accommodation of a normal human eye is about 4-dioptres.

 

Q.7 What is the far-point and near point of the eye?

Ans. Far Point:- The most distant point at which an object can be seen clearly is called the far point of the eye. E.g. For a normal eye, the far point lies at infinity

Near Point:- The point at closest distance at which an object can be seen clearly by the eye is called near point of the eye. E.g. For a normal eye, the near point is at a distance of 25cm.

 

Q.8 What do you mean by defects of vision? How are these defects corrected?

Ans. Defects of Vision:- In a normal eye. The image of an object is formed exactly on the retina. The eye is said to be defective, when the image of an object (distant or nearby object) is not formed on the retina.

   There are three common defects of vision as:

1. Myopia or Short sightedness:- Myopia is that defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the far-off objects clearly but can see only the nearby objects. E.g. A child suffering from this defect is unable to read the writings on the blackboard from the last bench in the classroom, although he/she can read his/her book comfortably.

  Myopia can be caused due to two reasons as:

I. either the converging power of lens is very high

II. or the eye ball may be larger than the normal size.

       This type of defect can be corrected by using spectacles fitted with concave lens with suitable power.

 The image of the object of a myopic eye is always formed in front of the retina.

        2. Hypermetropia or Long-Sightedness:- Hypermetropia is that defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the nearby objects clearly but can see the distant object only. E.g. A person suffering from this defect can not read a book or a newspaper clearly and comfortably but can read the writings placed at distant places.

  Hypermetropia can be also caused due to two reasons:

I. either the converging power of lens is very low

II. or the eye ball may be shorter than the normal size.

     The image of the object in a hypermetropic eye is always formed behind the retina.

This type of defect can be corrected by using spectacles containing convex lens of suitable power.

3. Presbyopia:- It is that defect of vision due to which an old aged person cannot see the nearby objects clearly due to the loss of the power of accommodation of the eye. It is a special kind of the Hypermetropia. Presbyopia occurs in old age due to gradual weakening of the Ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.

   This type of defect is corrected in the same way as Hypermetropia by using spectacles having convex lenses.

 

Q.9 Distinguish between human eye and camera.

Ans.

    

Human Eye	Camera
1. The focal length of the eye can be changed by the action of Ciliary muscles.   2. The image formed on the retina of the eye is not permanent.   3 Retina can be used again and again for forming the image.   4. The focusing is done by changing the focal length of the eye lens.	1. The focal length of a camera is fixed and thus it cannot be changed.   2. The photographic film a camera retains the image of the object permanently.   3. A photographic film can be used only once for forming the image.   4. The focusing is done by changing the distance between lens and the film.

 

Q.10 What do you mean by dispersion of light?

Ans. Dispersion of Light:- It was Newton who discovered in 1665 by his experiment with glass prism that white light is a mixture of seven colors. He found that if a beam o light is passes through a glass prism, it splits to form a band of seven colors on a white screen. The phenomenon of splitting of white light into seven colors is called dispersion of light and the band of seven colors obtained on a screen is spectrum of white light. The seven colors of the spectrum can be denoted by the word VIBGYOR, where V stands for violet, I for indigo, B for blue, Y for yellow, O for orange and R for red.

   The dispersion of white light occurs because the angle of refraction of different colors is different when passing through the glass prism.

 

   

 

 

Q.11 What is rainbow? How is it formed?

Ans. Rainbow:- The rainbow is an arch of seven colors visible in the sky which is produced by the dispersion of sun’s light by raindrops in the atmosphere.

     Just after rain or during rain, there is a large number of raindrops in the atmosphere which acts like small prisms. As white light enters and leaves these water drops, the various colored rays present in white light are refracted by different amounts due to which an arch of seven colors called rainbow is formed in the sky.

 

 Q.12 What do you mean by atmospheric refraction?

Ans. Atmospheric Refraction:- We know that, in the atmosphere the temperature of air is not same everywhere, but some of the air layers are cold and some are comparatively warm. The cooler layers of the atmosphere behave as optically denser medium for light rays while the warm air layers behave as optically rarer medium. When light rays passes through these air layers of different optical densities, then refraction (or bending) of light takes place. Thus the refraction of light caused by the earth’s atmosphere (having air layers of different optical densities) is called the atmospheric refraction.

 

 Q.13 What do you mean by twinkling of stars? What is the cause of twinkling of stars?

Ans. Twinkling of Stars:- When we look at a star in the sky on a clear night, we observe that the intensity of light coming from it continuously changes. At one moment the star appears bright and in the next moment the star appears dim. In fact, the star go on becoming bright and dim again and again. This brightening and diming of a star again and again is called twinkling of a star.

 

Cause of twinkling of Stars:- The twinkling of a star is due to the atmospheric refraction of star light. When the light coming from a star enters the atmosphere, it undergoes refraction due to different optical densities of air at different levels. The continuously changing atmosphere refracts the from the star by different amounts from one moment to the next. Sometimes, the atmosphere refracts more star light towards us, then the star appears to be bright and sometimes it refracts less star light and thus the star appears to be dim in this way, star light reaching our eyes increases and decreases continuously due to atmospheric refraction and thus the star appears to twinkle.

 

Q.14 Why do stars seemhigher than they actually are?

Ans. We know that the air layer near the ground level is optically denser and becomes rear and rear as we go higher and higher above the earth. When light from a star passes through various air layers of different densities, it bend more towards the normal near the ground and thus due to atmospheric refraction, the star ‘S’ appears in the position ‘s*’ at a height greater than its actual height.

 

                     

 

Q.15 The rays of sun remains visible to us for sometimes after the sunset (or before sunrise). Why?

Ans. As light rays from the sun passes through different atmospheric layers, they bend towards the normal on passing from rarer to denser layers with the result the apparent position of sun seems to be at S* instead of S. Thus for about 2-minutes even after setting of sun, the apparent position appears above the horizon and an observer can see it.

   Similarly, the sun becomes visible in the morning nearly 2-minutes before rising above the horizon.

 

 

Q.16 What is Tyndall effect?

Ans Tyndall Effect:- Scattering of light is the phenomenon of change in the direction of the light on striking the various suspended particles in its path. The scattering of light by particles in its path is called Tyndall effect.

 E.g. When a beam of light enters a room through a window, the dust particles suspended in the air becomes visible due to the scattering of light by these dust particles.

 

Q.17 Why the sun appears red at sunset and sunrise?

Ans. At the time of sunrise and sunset, the sunlight has to travel the greatest distance through the atmosphere to reach us. During this long journey of sun light, most of the shorter wavelength blue color present in it, is scattered out. So, the light reaching us directly from the rising sun or setting sun consists mainly of larger wavelength, red color due to which the sun appears red.

 

Q.19 Why does sky appears blue?

Ans. The molecules of air (like oxygen, nitrogen etc) in the atmosphere have size smaller than t he wavelength of the visible light. These are more effective in scattering light of shorter wave lengths at the blue end. Thus, when sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the particles in air scatter blue color more strongly than the red color. The scattered blue light enters our eyes and thus, it appears that the sky is blue in color

                     

2.Periodic Classification Of Elements-Full

Q.1 Give the need and importance 0f classification of elements?

Ans. The number of elements known so for is 115. These elements combine together to form million of compounds. It is, therefore, very difficult to study each element separately. So, in order to make the study of elements and their compounds easier, it has become necessary to arrange and classify the elements in a systematic manner i.e. in periodic table.

 

Q.2 What is Dabereiner’s law of Triads?

Ans. Dabereiner’s law of Triads:- In 1829, a German chemist, Dabereiner’s suggested that the properties of elements can be related to their atomic masses. He held the elements in order of their increasing atomic masses and prepared groups of three similar elements known as triads.

     According to Dabereiner’s law of Triads, “When elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses, groups of three elements (triads) having similar chemical properties are obtained. The atomic mass of the middle element of the triad being equal to the arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of the other two elements.”

 

Example: The elements like Lithium, Sodium and Potassium form a triad as:

(a). They have similar chemical properties as:

I. All these elements are metals.

II. These are monovalent i.e they have valency 1.

III. All of them react with water to form alkalis and hydrogen gas.

 

(b).

Elements of the Triad	Symbols	Atomic Masses
1. Lithium	Li	7
2. Sodium	Na	23
3. Potassium	K	39

 

 

Arithmetic mean of atomic masses of Lithium (Li) & Potassium (K) =   7+39

                                                                                                                    2

= 46  =   23 = Atomic mass of sodium.

    2

 

Q.3 What are the limitations of Dabereiner’s classification of elements?

Ans. Dabereiner’s failed to arrange all the then known elements in the form of triads of elements having similar chemical properties and he could only identify three triads from the elements known at that time, so his classification was not much successful.

 

Q.4 State and explain Newland’s Law Of Octaves?

Ans. Newland’s Law Of Octaves:- In 1864, an English scientist, John Newlands showed that when elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses, there is a repetition of properties in every eighth element. This repetition in the properties of the elements is just like the repetition of note in an octave of music. So it is also known as Law of octaves.

    According to Newlands, “When elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses, the properties of the eighth element are the repetition of the properties of first element.”

  A scheme of his elements is shown as:

 

H                Li              Be              B                      C                          N                           O   F                 Na            Mg             Al                    Si                          P                            S   Cl                K              Ca               Cr                    Ti                          Mn                       Fe   Co & Ni      Cu            Zn               Y                      In                         As                         Se   Br                Rb             Sr               Ce & La           Zr                          –                            –

 

In the above classification, if lithium be the first element, then the eighth element sodium (according to Newland) should have the similar properties to those of lithium and it has been found that these elements have similar chemical properties. Similarly, Sodium and Potassium have similar properties.

 

Q.5 What are the limitations of Newlands Law of Octaves?

Ans. Limitations of Newlands Law of Octaves:- The main limitations of Newlands Law of Octaves are as:

 

1. Newlands law was applicable to the classification of elements up to calcium only and after calcium every eighth element did not possess the properties similar to that of the first element.

2. Newlands assumed that only 56 elements existed in nature and no more elements would be discovered in the future, but later on several new were discovered whose properties did not fit into Newlands law of octaves.

3. Newland put even two elements in one slot and that in too the column 0f unlike elements having different properties. E.g. The two elements Co & Ni were put in one slot and that too in the column of elements like fluorine, chlorine and bromine which have very different properties from these elements.

4. Iron element which resembles Cobalt and nickel elements in properties, was placed far away from these elements.

 

Q.6 State and explain Mendeleev’s Periodic table?

Ans. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:- Mendeleev, a Russian Chemist in 1869, put forward his periodic law which states that, “The properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.” It means that, if the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic masses, the elements with similar properties are repeated at regular intervals.

    Based upon this law, Mendeleev prepared a table known as Mendeleev’s periodic table. In Mendeleev’s periodic table, there are 7 horizontal rows known as periods and 8 verticals columns called group. Out of these 8 group, the first seven groups are of normal elements and the eighth group is of transition elements. There was no group of noble gases as these were not known at that time. The similar properties used by Mendeleev to classify elements into groups were similar formulae of their oxides hydrides.

  Mendeleev left some gaps in his periodic table for those elements which were not known at that time. He named these elements as “eka-boron”, “eka-aluminum” and “eka-silicon” by prefixing the term “Eka” to name of the preceding element in the group. The term “Eka” is derived from a Sanskrit word which means “first”. So, eka-boron means first come boron and then the unknown element.

  A part 0f Mendeleev’s periodic table is shown as:

 

	Group    I	Group    II	Group   III	Group    IV	Group    V	Group  VI	Group VII	Group          VIII
Oxides→ Hydrides→	R2O RH	RO RH2	R2O3 RH3	RO2 RH4	R2O5 RH3	RO3 RH2	R2O7 RH	RO4   –
Periods      ↓1	H            1.0
2	Li 7.0	Be 9.1	B 11.0	C 12.0	N 14.0	O 16.0	F 19.0
3	Na         23.0	Mg         24.3	Al         27.0	Si         28.4	P         31.0	S         32.0	Cl         35.5
Ist series          4 2nd series	K 39.1             Cu         63.5	Ca 40.1           Zn         65.4	… 44             …            68	Ti 48.1              …             72	V 51.4             As             75	Cr 52.1             Se             79	Mn 55.0             Br         79.9	Fe        Co     Ni 55.8  58.9    58.7
Ist series       5 2nd series	Rb 85.4             Ag       107.9	Sr 87.6            Cd       112.4	Y 89.0             In       114.0	Zr 90.6            Sn       119.0	Nb 94.0            Sb       120.0	Mo 96.0           Te       127.6	Tc 99               I       126.9	Ru         Rh       Pd 101.0 102.9 106.4
Ist series         6 2nd series	Cs 132.9            Au       197.2	Ba 137.3            Hg       200.0

 

Q.7 What are the merits of Mendeleev’s periodic Table?

Ans. Merits of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:– Some of the merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table are as:

I. Mendeleev’s periodic law predicted the existences of some unknown elements and left proper gaps for them. Later on, when these elements were discovered, they were placed in those gaps without disturbing the existing elements.

2. Mendeleev’s periodic table also predicted the properties of several elements like gallium, scandium and germanium and later their properties were found same as that of the actual properties.

3. Mendeleev’s periodic table could accommodate noble gases when they were discovered. These are placed in a separate group because they are chemically unreactive.

 

Q.8 What are the main limitations of Mendeleev’s periodic table?

Ans. Main Limitations Of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:– The main defects of Mendeleev’s periodic table are as:

1. Position of Isotopes:- Isotopes of various elements have been put together at one place in the periodic table although they have same properties but different atomic masses, which is against his law. E.g. the two isotopes of chlorine, Cl-35 and Cl-39 are placed in the same group although they have different atomic masses.

2. wrong order atomic masses of some elements:-Some elements having higher atomic masses have been placed before the elements with lower  atomic masses.

e.g. Cobalt (Co) with atomic mass 58.9 has been placed before nickel (Ni) with atomic mass 56.6

3. Wrong position of Hydrogen:- A correct position could not be assigned to hydrogen in the periodic table. In Mendeleev’s periodic table, hydrogen has been placed in Group-I with alkalis, because like alkali metals it combines with halogens to form compounds having similar formulae.

     On the other hand, hydrogen also like halogens (Cl, F, Br etc) exits in the form of diatomic molecule (H₂). Thus, it resembles also with halogens and thus should be placed in Group-VIII of halogen elements. Hence hydrogen could be placed in Group-I as well as in Group-VIII and thus the correct position of hydrogen could not be assigned by Mendeleev.

 

Q.9 What is the present bases for periodic classification of elements and explain how the limitations in Mendeleev’s periodic table were removed in Modern Periodic Table?

Ans. Present Bases For Periodic Classification Of Elements:– The present bases for the classification of elements is the atomic number of elements. It was Mosley who showed in 1913 that the atomic number of an element is more fundamental property than atomic mass and hence atomic number is the better for the classification of elements. The significance of atomic number in the classification of elements is that atomic number being equal to the number of electrons, so it helps in arranging the elements according to their electronic configuration. Thus, it is true to say that the present bases for classification of elements is their electronic configuration.

 

Explanation for the limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic classification of elements:– When the elements are arranged according to their atomic numbers on the bases of Modern Periodic law, then all the defects of Mendeleev’s periodic table were automatically removed.

E,g. isotopes of an element need not to be given separate place in the periodic table because they have same atomic number and thus can be placed at one group.

  Similarly, the misfits like the wrong position of Cobalt & Nickel gets removed as these elements are correctly placed in the increasing order of their atomic numbers.

 

Q.10 Discuss in detail : Modern Periodic Table

Ans. Modern Periodic Table:– The modern periodic table was prepared by Bohr. It is also known as Long form of periodic table. It is based on the modern periodic law which states that, “ The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers.” Thus, the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic numbers. The horizontal rows of elements in a periodic table are called Periods. There are seven periods in the long form of periodic table. First period has 2 elements while 2^nd & 3^rd periods have 8 elements each. These are called short periods. Fourth and fifth periods contain 18 elements each. These are called long periods. Sixth period contains 32 elements. It is called very long period and the seventh period is incomplete period and contains the remaining elements. The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers.

    The vertical columns in a periodic table are called groups. There are 18 groups in the long form of periodic table which are numbered as 1 to 18. The elements in a group do not have consecutive atomic numbers. The groups 1 & 2 and 13 to 17 contains normal elements.

   The group 3 to 12 elements are called transition elements. In these elements, the outermost as well as the next to outer most (penultimate shell) are incomplete. Group 18 elements are known as noble gases 0r inert gases and valence shells of these elements are completely filled.

    The elements with atomic numbers 51 to 71 are called Lanthanide series (because their first element is lanthanum) and the elements with atomic numbers 89 to 103 are called actinide series (because their first element is actinium) and are placed in two rows at the bottom of the periodic table.

    In the modern periodic table, the elements have been divided into metals and non-metals. The elements on the left side of the periodic table are metals where as those on the right side are non-metals. Metals and non-metals are separated by another type of elements called metalloids (like B, Si, Ge, Ar etc.) which are placed diagonally in the periodic table.

 

 

Q,11 Describe the main characteristics of periods in the long form of periodic table.

Ans. Characteristics Of Periods In The Long Form Of Periodic Table:–  The horizontal rows of elements in a periodic table are called periods. There are seven periods in the long form of periodic table.

   The main characteristics of periods are as:

 

1. Valence Electrons:– The number of electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons. On moving from left to right in a period, the of valence electrons in elements increases from 1 to 8 (except in the first period where it increases from 1 to 2 ). The first element in every period has 1 valence electron while the last element in every period has 8 valence electrons (except He.)

 

 

 

 

Na  11

Mg  12

Al  13

Si 14

P 15

S 16

Cl 17

Ar 18

   Electronic configuration:        2  8  1    2  8  2   2 8 3  2 8 4  2 8 5  2 8 6  2 8 7  2 8 8

    No.of valence electrons:                1            2         3        4        5        6        7        8

 

2.Valency:- The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom of an element to achieve nearest inert gas electronic configuration is known as its valency.

   On moving from left to right in each period (except first period), the valency of electrons first increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 0.

 

 

Na  11

Mg  12

Al  13

Si 14

P 15

S 16

Cl 17

Ar 18

   Electronic configuration:      2  8  1     2  8  2    2 8 3  2 8 4  2 8 5  2 8 6   2 8 7 2 8 8

   No.of valence electrons:         1             2           3        4        5        6          7       8

   Valency:                                   1             2           3        4        3        2          1       0

 

3. Size of atoms:- The size of atoms is also known as atomic size or atomic radius. As we move from left to right in a periodic table, the atomic number of elements increases which means that number of protons and electrons in the atoms increases. Due to large positive on the nucleus, the electrons are pulled more close to the nucleus and thus, the size of atoms decreases. Hence, on moving from left to right in a period of the periodic table, the size of atoms decreases.

 

Na  11

Mg  12

Al  13

Si 14

P 15

S 16

Cl 17

   Atomic radius:                        186         160       143    118     110    104      99

  

4. Metallic character:- On moving from left to right in a period, the metallic character of elements decreases while the non-metallic character increases. Metals are in the left side while the non-metals are in the right side in the period and in between them lies metalloids.

 

Na  11

Mg  12

Al  13

Si 14

P 15

S 16

Cl 17

  Nature of elements:              ⌠______Metals_____⌡    ↓  ⌠__Non-metals__⌡

                                                                                     Metalloid

5. Chemical Reactivity:– On moving from left to right, the chemical reactivity of elements first decreases and then increases.

Na  11

Mg  12

Al  13

Si 14

P 15

S 16

Cl 17

   Chemical Reactivity:                ↓                                ↓                             ↓

                                              Very reactive             Least reactive        Very reactive

 

6. Nature of oxides:- On moving from left to right in a period, the basic nature of oxides decreases and the acidic nature of oxides increases. E.g. In the third period of elements, sodium oxide is highly basic in nature and magnesium oxide is comparatively less basic. The aluminum and silicon oxides are amphoteric in nature. Phosphorus oxides are acidic, sulphur oxides are more acidic and chlorine oxides are highly in nature.

 

Na  11

Mg  12

Al  13

Si 14

P 15

S 16

Cl 17

   Nature of Oxides:                   ↓           ⌠________⌡               ↓

                                            Highly basic  Amphoteric         Highly acidic

 

Q.12 Describe the main characteristics of groups in the long form of periodic table.

Ans. Characteristics Of groups In The Long Form Of Periodic Table:–  The verticals columns of elements in a periodic table are called groups. There are eighteen groups in the long form of periodic table.

   The main characteristics of groups are as:

1. Valence Electrons:– All the elements of a group of the periodic table have the same number of valence electrons.

e.g. All the elements of group-I of the periodic table have 1 valence electron in their atoms.

 

                           Group-I            Electronic config.             No.of valence electrons

Li  3

Na  11

K 19

       

          2  1                                              1

                                                          

           2  8   1                                               1

       

          2   8    8   1                                         1

2. Valency:- All the elements of a group have the same valency because the number of valence electrons in a group is same.

 E.g. All the elements of group-I have 1 valency each as they have 1 valence electron each.

3. Size of atoms:-On going down in a group 0f the periodic table, the size of atoms increases. This is due the fact that on moving from top to bottom in a group a new shell of electrons is added at every step and thus, this increases the size of atoms.

 e.g. In group-I of elements lithium is at the top of the group, so it is the smallest atom while francium atom is at the bottom of the group so it is the biggest atom.

 

 

 

 

 

 

                     Group-I                      Atomic Radius(pm)

Li

Na

K

Rb

Cs

Fr

                           152

 

                           186

                           231

 

                           244

                           262

                           270

4. Metallic Character:- On going down in a group of the periodic table, the metallic character of atoms increases. This is due to the fact that when moving down in  group one more electron shell is increased at every stage and size of atoms increases. The valence electrons becomes more and more away from the nucleus and the of the nucleus on valence electrons decreases. Due to this the atom c lose the valence electrons more easily to form positive ions and hence the electropositive character increases.

 E.g. In group-I, lithium is the least metallic element while as francium is the most metallic element.

 

5.Chemical Reactivity:- The chemical reactivity of metals increases on going down in a group of the periodic table as the tendency of their atoms to lose electrons increases.

 E.g. In the group of alkali metals, the chemical reactivity increases from lithium to francium.

The chemical reactivity of non-metals decreases on going down in a group of the periodic table.

E.g. In group-17, of halogen elements, the chemical reactivity decreases from chlorine to iodine.

                       

          Group-I                                                                Group-17

Li

Na

K

Rb

Cs

Fr

F

Cl

Br

I

Least Reactive                                                             

 

 

 

 

6.Nature of oxides:- By going down in a group of the periodic table, there is no change in the oxides of elements.

 E.g. All the elements of group-I form basic oxides while as all the elements of group-17 form basic oxides.

 

Q.13 What is the position of hydrogen in the modern periodic table?

Ans. Position of hydrogen in Modern Periodic Table:- Hydrogen has been placed at the top of group-I above the alkali metals because the electronic configuration of hydrogen is similar to those of alkali metals. Both hydrogen as well as alkali metals have 1 valence electron each. As hydrogen atom is very small in size, its many properties are different those of alkali metals and thus, it is not included in alkali metals.

 

Q.14 What are the advantages of Modern Periodic Table?

Ans. Advantages of Modern Periodic Table:- Following are the advantages of modern periodic table:

 I. It has made the study of the properties of elements and their compounds simple and systematic. It has reduced the chemistry of 115 elements to a few groups.

II. It helps us to predict which compound is formed by an element by knowing its position in the periodic table.

   e.g. If an element is on left side of the periodic table, it will be a metal and hence form only ionic compounds and if an element is on the right side, it will be a non-metal and can form ionic as well as co-valent compounds.

III. It helps us to remember the properties of an element if its position is known in the periodic table.

IV. A periodic table chart can be used as a teaching aid in the chemistry in schools and colleges.

 

Q.15 What are the merits of the modern periodic table?

Ans. Merits of Modern Periodic Table:– Some merits of modern periodic table are as:

1. The modern periodic table is based on the atomic numbers of elements which is the most fundamental property 0f elements.

2. It helps in understanding why elements in a group show similar properties but elements in different groups show different properties.

3. The modern periodic table explains the reasons for the periodicity in properties of elements. It says that the electronic configurations of the elements are repeated at regular intervals, so the properties of elements are also repeated at regular intervals.

4.  The modern periodic table tells us why the properties are repeated after 2, 8, 18 and 32 elements.

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1.Chemical Reactions And Equations-Full

Q.1 What are chemical reactions?

Ans. Chemical Reactions:- Chemical reactions are the process in which new substances with new properties are formed. It involves breaking down of old chemical bonds which exists between the atoms of reacting substances and making of new chemical bonds between the rearranged atoms of new substances.

e.g  When a magnesium ribbon is heated, it burns in air with a dazzling white flame to form powder called Magnesiumoxide.

Magnesium   + Oxygen  →   Magnesiumoxide.

 

Q.2 What are the characteristics of a chemical reactions?

Ans.Some important characteristics of a  chemical reactions are as:

1.Evolution of gas :- Some chemical reactions are characterized by the evolution of a gas.

e.g When zinc granules react with dilute sulphsuric acid,then bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced.

2.Change in color:- Some chemical reactions are characterized by a change in color.

e.g when sulphur dioxide is passed through acidified potassium dichromate solution, then the orange color of potassium dichromate solution changes to green.

3.Formation of Precipitate:- Some chemical reactions are characterized by the formation of precipitate.

e.g When potassium iodized solution is added to a solution of Lead nitrate, then a yellow precipitate of Lead iodide is formed.

4.Change in state:- :- Some chemical reactions are characterised by change in state.

e.g  When wax(solid) is burned (in the form of wax candle),then water(liquid) and carbon dioxide(gas) are formed.

5.Chage in Temperature:- Some chemical reactions are characterised by change in temperature.e.g (a) When quicklime reacts with water ,then slaked lime is formed and a lot of heat energy is produced.

(b).When barium chloride is added to ammonium chloride in a test tube, then barium chloride, ammonium and water are formed & a lot of heat energy is absorbed.

Q.3 What is a Chemical Equation?

Ans. Chemical Equation:- The method of representing a chemical reaction with the help of symbols and formulae of the substances involved in it,is known as chemical equation.

e.g  Magnesium on heating reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.

        Magnesium  +  Oxygen      à       Magnesium oxide

The above equation is known as word equation & can be changed into chemical equation by writing symbols & formulae of the various substances as:

2Mg   +     O₂        à     2Mgo

       Magnesium      Oxygen    Magnesium oxide

In short, a chemical equation is a shorthand method of represent ting a chemical reaction.

Q.4 What are balanced and unbalanced chemical equations?

Ans. Balanced Chemical Equations:–A chemical equation which has an equal number of atoms of different elements in the reactants and products is called a balanced chemical equation. E.g. Zinc reacts with dilute Balanced Chemical sulphuric acid to give zinc sulphate and hydrogen.

  Zn  +H₂SO₄   →      ZnSO₄  + H₂

 

Unbalanced Chemical Equations:- A chemical equation which has unequal number of atoms of one 0r more elements in the reactants and products is known as an unbalanced chemical equation. E.g Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen to form water.

        H₂   +   O₂     →    H₂O

Q.5  What do you mean by balancing of a chemical equation?

Ans Balancing of a chemical equation:- The process of making the different types of atoms equal on both the sides of an equation is known as balancing of a chemical equation.The simple equations are balanced by hit and trial method.

e.g Hydrogen burns in Oxygen to form water.

          H₂  +   O₂  →  H₂O

The above equation is unbalanced and can be balanced by multiplying 2 to hydrogen and water.

       :.  2H₂    +    O₂     →     2H₂O

Q.6 what are Exothermic and Endothermic reactions?

Ans Exothermic Reactions:– Those reactions in which heat is evolved are known as exothermic reactions. E.g. The burning of carbon in oxygen is an exothermic reaction because heat energy is evolved  in this reaction.

          C (s)   +     O₂ (g)      →        CO₂ (g)   +   Heat

Endothermic Reactions:- Those reactions in which heat energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions. E.g. The reaction of carbon with sulphur to form carbon disulphide is endothermic reaction because heat energy is absorbed is this reaction.

     C    +      2S        + Heat   →       CS₂

Carbon  sulphur                          carbon disulphide

 

Q.7 Explain with the help of examples what do you mean by Combination reactions?

Ans. Combination Reactions:- Those reactions in which two or more substances combine together to form a single substance are known as combination reactions.

e.g

(a). Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water.

          2H₂ (g)    O₂ (g)     →  2H₂O (l)

 

(b)  Sodium metal burns in chlorine to form sodium chloride.

         2Na (s)   +     Cl₂ (g)   →    2NaCl (s)

 

Q.8 Explain with the help of examples what do you mean by decomposition reactions?

Ans. Decomposition Reactions:-Those chemical reactions in which a compound splits up into two or more simpler substances are known as decomposition reactions.The decomposition reactions are just opposite of combination reactions. These are carried out by applying heat, light or electricity.

  Examles:

(a). When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes to give calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂).

        CaCO₃ (s)      →        CaO (s)      +    CO₂(g)

(b). When electric current is passed through the acidified water, it decomposes to form hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.

     2H₂O (l)      →    2H₂ (g)   +     O₂ (g)

(c). When sliver chloride is exposed to light, it decomposes to form silver metal and chlorine gas.

     2AgCl (s)      →     2Ag (s)       Cl₂ (g)

 

Q.8 What are displacement reactions?

Ans. Displacement Reactions:- Those reactions in which one element takes the place of another element in a compound, are known as displacement reactions. In these reactions , a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound.

Examples

(a). When a strip of zinc metal is placed in copper sulphate solution, then more reactive zinc displaces less reactive copper to form zinc sulphate solution and copper.

 

    CuSO₄ (aq)     +     Zn (s)       →     ZnSO₄ (aq)     +     Cu (s)

 

(b). When a piece of magnesium metal is placed in copper sulphate solution, then more reactive magnesium displaces less reactive copper to form magnesium sulphate solution and copper.

 

      CuSO₄ (aq)   +  Mg (s)    →    MgSO₄  (aq)    +   Cu (s)

(c). Similarly, when a strip of lead metal is placed in a solution of copper chloride, then lead chloride solution & copper metal are formed.

     CuCl₂ (aq)   +Pb (s)     →    PbCl₂ (aq)       +    Cu (s)

 

Q.9 What are double displacement reactions?

Ans. Double Displacement Reactions:- Those reactions in which two compounds react by an exchange of ions to form two new compounds are known as double displacement reactions. In these reactions, a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound.

Examples

(a). When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed through copper sulphate solution, then a black precipitate of copper sulphide is formed along with sulphuric acid solution.

 

      CuSO₄ (aq)        +        H₂S (g)                   →         CuS (s)      +        H2SO₄ (aq)

  Copper sulphate      Hydrogen sulphide          copper sulphide    sulphuric acid

 

(b). Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react to form sodium chloride and water as:

      NaOH (aq)    +     HCl (aq)       →   NaCl (aq)    +   H₂O (l)

 

(c). Silver nitrate & sodium chloride solutions react to form a white precipitate of silver chloride and sodium nitrate.

      AgNO₃ (aq)      +     NaCl (aq)   →   AgCl (s)    +     NaNO₃ (aq)

 

Q.10 What do you mean by Oxidation and Reduction Reactions in terms of hydrogen and oxygen?

Ans.

Oxidation:-

(a). The addition of oxygen to a substance is known as oxidation.

(b). The removal of hydrogen from a substance is also known as oxidation.

 

Reduction:-

(a). The addition of hydrogen to a substance is known as reduction.

(b). The removal of oxygen from a substance is also known as reduction.

 

       The oxidation and reduction reactions are also known as redox reactions.

Examples:

 

   (a). When copper oxide is heated with oxygen, then copper metal and water are formed.

 

             Removal of hydrogen:Reduction

           |                                                       ↓

           CuO        +     H2          →               Cu      +         H2O

                                  |___________ ___________↑

                                       Addition of oxygen:Oxidation

 

 (b). When hydrogen sulphide reacts with chlorine, then sulphur and hydrogen are formed.

 

 

         Removal of hydrogen: oxidation

        |                                                       ↓

        H₂S          +       Cl₂       →               S         +           2HCl

                                  |________________________↑

                                    Addition of hydrogen:Reduction

 

Q.11 What are oxidation and reduction reactions in terms of metals and non-metals?

Ans.

Oxidation:- The addition of non-metallic element (or removal of metallic element) is known as oxidation.

 

Reduction:- The addition of metallic element (or removal of non-metallic element) is known as reduction.

Example: When copper is heated in air , it reacts with oxygen of air to form a black compound called copper oxide.

 

          2Cu      +    O2     →      2CuO

   In this reaction , copper is changing into copper oxide.This is the addition of oxygen (non-metallic element), so it is called oxidation. Now oxygen is changing into copper oxide. This is addition of copper (metallic element), so it is called reduction.

 

Q.12 What are oxidizing and reducing agents?

Ans.

 Oxidising agent:-

(a).The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an oxidizing agent.

(b). The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an oxidizing agent.

 

Reducing agent:-

(a). The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a reducing agent.

(b). The substance which removes oxygen is also called a reducing agent.

Examples:

I.When a magnesium ribbon burns in air, it combines with the oxygen of air to form magnesium oxide.

                 2Mg    +    O₂   →  2MgO

In this reaction, magnesium is oxidized to magnesium oxide (MgO) where as oxygen (O2) is reduced to magnesium oxide( MgO),so oxygen is the oxidizing agent where as magnesium is the reducing agent.

II. When hydrogen sulphide reacts with chlorine, then sulphur and hydrogen chloride are formed.

               H₂S    +    Cl₂   →    S   +     2HCl

   Here, chlorine is the oxidizing agent where as hydrogen is the reducing agent.

 

Q.13 What do you mean by corrosion of metals? How can be it prevented?

Ans. Corrosion of Metals:- The process in which metals are eaten up gradually by the attack of air, moisture or a chemical (such as acid)on their surface is known as corrosion of metals. Corrosion is caused mainly by the oxidation of metals by the oxygen of air. Corrosion of iron metal is called rusting.

   During the corrosion iron (or rusting of iron), iron metal is oxidized by the oxygen of air in presence of water or  moisture to form hydrated iron (III) oxide called rust.

                    4Fe      +      3O₂    +     2xH₂O     →  2Fe₂O₃xH₂

   Preventions:-

        Corrosion of meals can be prevented by coating the metal surface with a protective layers of paint, varnish, or grease. It can also be prevented by giving a thin coating of another metal like Zinc, Tin or chromium.

 

Q.14 What do you mean by Rancidity of foods? How the development of rancidity of food can be prevented?

air, their oxidation products have unpleasant smell and taste. The condition produced by aerial oxidation of fats and oils in foods marked by unpleasant smell and taste is called rancidity of foods.

 

     The development of rancidity of foods can be prevented in following ways:

1. By adding anti-oxidant:-Anti oxidant is a substance which prevents oxidation. When the anti oxidants such as BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Toulene) and BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole) are added to foods, then the fats and oils present in them do not get oxidized easily and hence do not turn rancid.

2. By Packaging fat & oil containing foods in nitrogen gas:- When the packed food is surrounded by an unreactive gas like nitrogen, there is oxygen(of air) to cause oxidation and make it rancid.

3.By keeping food in a Refrigerator:- When the foods are kept in a refrigerator, the of fats and oils in it are slowed down due to low temperature in it.

4. By storing foods in air-tight containeers:- When food is stored in air tight containers, then there is little exposure to oxygen of air. Due to this, the oxidation of fats & oils is slowed down.

5. By storing foods away from light:- In the absence of light, the oxidation of fats & oils present in food is slowed down and hence the development is retarded.